Pronoun Usage Essay Example for Free

Pronoun Usage Essay Someone had left their tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This sentence has a problem with pronoun usage in that there is a plural personal possessive pronoun, but someone is a singular pronoun.   Therefore, the sentence contains an error in agreement.   One can fix this error in four different ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first is to correct the error.   Someone had left HIS or HER tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.   This uses a singular personal possessive pronoun of his/her which does agree with the singular someone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another way to correct the sentence is to use a plural subject.   For example, both of my brothers left their tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.   Here, the pronoun BOTH agrees with the pronoun their in that they are both plural.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A third way to fix the error is to remove the pronoun altogether.   The sentence would sound like this:   Someone had left tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.   Of course this one does not imply that the shoes left necessarily belonged to the someone in question.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, one can avoid the confusion with the pronoun someone by using a more obviously singular subject.   For example, a person left his or her tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.   Or, my mother left her tennis shoes in the middle of the floor, or my father left his tennis shoes in the middle of the floor.

The Spanish And Ottoman Empire

The Spanish And Ottoman Empire The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries marked key points in the development of both the Spanish and the Ottoman empires. The building of the Spanish and the Ottoman Empires are both similar and different in many ways. With the discovery of the Americas and the conquering of Constantinople, both empires were emerging as world powers. Furthermore, both empires developed into strong religious empires. One major difference was the reasons for conquest between the two vast empires. The Spanish sought to improve trade whereas the Ottoman Empire sought military control. There were also many similarities and differences in how the Spanish and the Ottoman Empires developed politically. The Spanish used the Encomienda System as a base for economic and political order in the Americas. Using this system, the men who served the crown, or the encomenderos, were awarded part of the labor and produce of the natives. The Spanish king ruled through the Council of the Indies, allowing the king to appoint viceroys. Furthermore, the Spanish king could oversee the treasury office and the royal court of appeals, or audiencia. In contrast, the Ottoman Empire developed a bureaucracy, and because of religious tolerance allowed Christians and Jews to participate in the government. The Spanish and the Ottoman Empires can be compared and contrasted economically. One difference between the two empires was taxing in the Ottoman Empire. Although the Ottoman Empire was tolerant of other religions, they imposed a special tax on non Muslims called the jizya. One similarity was the establishment of trade routes in both empires. The Spanish Empire established trade routes to the Americas and the Ottoman Empire, under the rule of Suleyman, expanded populations, roads, and trade routes. Suleyman led the Ottoman Empire to the Pax Ottomanica , resulting in the golden age that allowed the empire to flourish. Furthermore, the Ottoman Empire controlled half of the Danube River, allowing them to control trade. Socially, both the Spanish and the Ottoman Empires were very strict religious empires. The Spanish were strict Catholics (maybe tolerant). Similarly, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was a devout Muslim. The Spanish spread Christianity throughout the Americas, converting Natives similar to how the Ottomans converted boys in poor villages top ranking janissaries. However, the two empires did differ in that the Ottoman Empire was tolerant of other religions. The Ottoman Empire tolerated other religions because by allowing the Christians and Jews to practice their religions freely, the Ottoman Turks could defend themselves against revolts and rebellions. One major difference between the two empires was their reasons for expansion and conquest. The Spanish Empire expanded to further promote trade, whereas the Ottoman Empire expanded for military control. Under a system known as devshirme the Ottoman Sultan rounded up boys between the ages of 12 and 20 from villages and trained the best 1 0 percent to be civil servants or military men known as janissaries. However a similarity can be found in the decline of these two empires, where both empires ended because of the implications of the systems they sought to improve in expansion. The Spanish, in attempts to improve trade started to decline because of a weak financial base, unable to reap the benefits of trade. Similarly, when the expansion of the Ottoman Empire stopped, the empire lacked the influx of manpower to feed its system of maintaining an efficient population of civil servants and military men. A serial military defeat followed afterwards. During the periods of 1450 to 1800, the building of the Spanish and the Ottoman Empire developed in similar and different ways. Politically, the Spanish used an encomienda system whereas the Ottomans developed a bureaucratic government. Economically, the Spanish and the Ottoman developed trade routes, but the Spanish did not impose the jizya as the Ottomans did. Socially, both empires were strictly religious but the Ottomans were more tolerant of other religions. Despite their emergence as world powers, both empires declined as a result of the Spanishs inability to develop a strong financial base and the Ottomans failure to continue maintaining a constant manpower. Whereas the Spanish easily conquered the New World, the Ottomans constantly fought against different people from Africa, Asia, and Europe. Ottoman society was divided politically into wealth producers, soldiers, Muslims, and non-Muslims. Under a system known as devshirme the Sultan rounded up boys between the ages of 12 and 20 from villages and trained the best 10 percent to be civil servants or military men known as janissaries. After the relatively easier early conquest, Spanish legislation prohibited exploration and enslavement of Indians in its New Laws of 1542. In Mexico and Peru the decree was ignored and lead to a debate about how the colonies should be run, with some prominent ruling class arguing that Indians should be treated with protection and care, while others argued for a slavery system. The Ottoman Empire was less enlightened in ideology, but ruled with brute penalties for criminal acts, and efficient administration ad legal procedures. The Sultan considered himself supreme as compared against other monarchs. Indians died because of disease, dislocation, and the rigors of mine work following the European conquest. When the Spanish monarch ended the encomienda system the colonists increasingly sought grant of lands creating rural estates that produced cultural products. Gradually, the Americas evolved into an economic base that supports Spain. As for the Ottoman Empire, its decline was drastic. When the expansion stopped, the empire lacked the influx of manpower to feed its system of maintaining an efficient population of civil servants and military men. A serial military defeat followed afterwards.

How Cultivation Theory Applies To Racial Problems Media Essay

How Cultivation Theory Applies To Racial Problems Media Essay Introduction American cartoons comprise the most popular film product industry for children worldwide, and have gained considerable attention in terms of educating children. As an excellent medium for storytelling, children learn the basic concepts of what the world is like and what love and ethics are from the fairy tales they watch. I am currently studying one of the communication theories, namely, cultivation theory. American cartoons, particularly Disney movies, are classic objects of study. The cultivation theory developed by George Gerbner and Larry Gross of the University of Pennsylvania states that the more time people spend living in the television world, the more likely they are to believe the social reality portrayed on television. Therefore, heavy television viewers have a higher estimation for a particular social reality (e.g., violence, prostitution, affluence, occupation, and marital discord) than what real-world phenomena can justify. Thus, to make the theory applicable to the real world, the study emphasizes the harm that television shows might bring to people. In my opinion, early education is essential to the development of an individuals personality; it also determines his/her later ideology. Thus, the effects of cartoons on childrens self development are worth studying. American cartoons and animation movies have benefits, particularly in teaching children the values of honesty, bravery, and friendship, and the fact that justice and good will triumph over evil. However, we can also see that the protagonists often use violence to defeat evil. Along with violence, gender problems and religious issues also show up in most films more than we think, and children learn about them without guidance. Children could easily confuse reality and fantasy, particularly in our current society where parents who are busy with work and socializing use video games and television shows as substitute companions for their children. In a nutshell, studying American cartoons is crucial for us because they may drastically affect childrens upbringing by presenting negative messages. The cultivation theory deeply focuses on the effects of violence on the behavior of people. In this paper, I will analyze the issue of racial discrimination in cartoons to make the study of the cultivation theory more complete. Discrimination is another essential topic that has been largely neglected due to the focus on violence in cartoons. Literature Review Dixon (2006) believes that heavy viewers of television are more likely to think that an African-American suspect is guilty; they also view the world as a more dangerous place than it actually is. Television encourages violence and aggression. Durkin (1985) supports the view that children obtain information on gender roles and racial views from television and model their behaviors based on television characterization. Gerbner describe the process of blurring, blending, and bending that is experienced by individuals with heavy viewing habits. (Griffin, 2011). Heavy television viewers create a common outlook through constant exposure to the same images and labels. In movies, the heroes and the victims are always fair-skinned, whereas the criminals or villains are always black- or dark-skinned. Mastro and Stern (2003) add that races other than whites are under-represented, negatively depicted, and are often targets of mockery. From Larsons theory, the more children watch television programs, the more likely they are to develop and entertain more traditional gender and racial stereotypes based on what they view in the media (Larson, 2002). Waver (2011) analyzes racial related-phenomena in American movies and finds that the race of the actors clearly affects the desires of white audience members to see the films. The higher the percentage of black actors in the movie, the less interested white individuals were in seeing the movie.   Analysis Most Disney movies feature gorgeous princesses, including The Little Mermaid, Snow White, and Rapunzel, who are all depicted as Caucasians. The princess in the film The Princess and the Frog was dark-skinned but her prince was a white man. Most heroes in these movies are all fair-skinned, but the skin tones of the villains are diverse. In the movies, the storylines usually start with a white man who breaks into a new cultural environment, changes the locals points of view and customs, and leads them defeat the bad guy, after which he becomes the hero. Tarzan even became king of the forest. This stereotype exists in numerous American movies. According to the cultivation theory, children may subconsciously develop behavioral stereotypes, although what they view could be biased, distorted or misleading (Oliver, 2001 , Smith, 1994). American cartoon movies also add their own value to foreign cultures, which may adversely affect childrens knowledge of the actual status of other nations. For instance, the song of the Disney movie Aladdin (1992) used inappropriate words to describe the hometown of Aladdin. In the song, the words à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦where they cut off your ear if they dont like your face. Its barbaric, but hey, its home offended the Arab Americans, who believed that the lyrics are a misrepresentation of the Arab culture and should be removed. In 1993, the New York Times published a critique of the said movie, which was entitled It is racism, but hey, its Disney. The article pointed out that To characterize an entire region with this sort of tongue-in-cheek bigotry, especially in a movie aimed at children, borders on barbaric (New York Times, 1993). Another Disney movie, Mulan, twisted certain facts of the Chinese culture. In the movie, Mulan was characterized as an independent, liberal woman who suggeste d to that the princesses chase love bravely. Although this is an accepted idea in modern society and could be deemed proper by most people, it is not the real ideology in ancient China; it is not part true history and real tradition. In another animation movie, Pocahontas, the love story was exaggerated and deviated from what actually occurred in history. The contents of some American cartoons are more suited to adults. For instance, the show South Park features sarcasm, dirty words, and improper content that could easily be misunderstood by children. In an episode in the 11th season of the show With Apologies to Jesse Jackson, the word nigger was used 43 times. Although the purpose of this episode was not to humiliate black people, as the episode was in fact highly accepted by blacks, children may misconstrue the purpose of this cartoon and learn a new word that they could abuse. Another Disney movie entitled Song of the South featured a song called Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah, which won the Oscar for Original Score in 1946. However, the movie had racist tendencies when viewed from the criterion of today. The story takes place in the South after the Civil War, and Uncle Remus, a freed slave, tells stories to children and makes them laugh. Adam Clayton Powell Jr. viewed the portrayal of the happy life as a slave with suspicion and posited that it is humiliating to minorities. Disney did not publish the DVD in the United States to avoid eliciting resentment from the public. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ Griffin (2000) describes the effects that media can have on the audience as being similar to a cue ball. The effect of the cue ball exists regardless of the distance of the cue ball to the other balls. A similar effect can be seen in the posters of most movies, where the characters outlook is already published before the audience even sees the movie. For instance, in the movie Aladdin, the skin tones of Aladdin and Jasmine are fairer than those of the other people in the movie, and Jafars appearance could already give a general impression of his villainy even before the movie is viewed. Fair skin can thus be mistakenly connected to purity and kindness, whereas black or dark skin could be associated with criminality and craftiness. The problem is not limited to movies alone. The audience has its own personal interest, which causes the racial issue in movies to become an infinite loop. According to the study by Weaver in 2011, white people are more inclined to choose movies with white cast members than movies with cast members from other races, thereby decreasing opportunities for white children to see more movies from different aspects, as well as the opportunities for them to change their stereotypes. White audience members that practice selective avoidance if they perceive that a film has a black theme is precisely the concern that black actors such as Will Smith have expressed, especially when it comes to romantic leads in movies (Jones, 2005). Last year, only two of the 30 highest grossing films featured major non-white characters. According to the cultivation theory, when audience members repeatedly view the same scenario from various television shows and movies, they will associate it with the outside world in their mind. Racism is a phenomenon that cannot be completely eliminated, particularly in a country with so many ethnicities, such as the United States. The high rate of positive roles that white people portray indicates the constancy of racism in the future. Conclusion Children from all over the world watch Disney and other American cartoons. Thus, these movies and shows have far-reaching effects. Growing up exposed to many classic and fantastic stories have kept children well entertained and educated, as they come to appreciate the stories being told and the excellent techniques and artwork used in the telling. The positive influences that these movies have on children are undeniably more immense than the negative influences, as they teach children to be independent, tough, and patriotic. Advocating liberty, human rights, and American ideology is necessary for a nation to unite and educate people. However, praising American culture while criticizing others is not respectful. Racism is not a concept that children should learn. We can strengthen their idea of equality by using the cultivation theory, which could result in a decrease in conflicts between races, genders, and other issues. As embodied in the cultivation theory, when television predominates the lives of children, its influence can permeate the behavior, language, thoughts, and actions of children. Moreover, negative messages tend to be received more easily than positive messages. Thus, the effects of media on children should be studied, and possible modifications should be introduced. Recent American cartoons already manifest some changes. For instance, the main character in the movie Megamind has blue skin, and the classic image of the superhero is the one being mocked. An upcoming movie entitled Escape From Planet Earth will feature stories of several blue characters. Guidance from parents is also essential in eliminating or mitigating the influence of cultivation effect on children. A childs knowledge of the world and his ability to tell right from wrong are not yet mature, so parents can help their children understand what is on screen by explaining the contents of television shows to them. The movie rating system should be used worldwide. The cultivation theory also clearly posits that the cultivation effect occurs only after long-term, cumulative exposure to television (Weimann2000). Thus, decreasing the amount of time children spend watching television is also necessary.

Love through life and death Essay -- Article Analysis, Stephen Lowe

For Time Magazine, by Stephen Lowe You’ve probably heard of the Indian vs. emigrants shootings, the drowning of the Applegate family, and starvation on the Oregon Trail, but do you honestly know to what extent how hard the journey was for the emigrants to make this 2,000 mile journey (McGill; Wagner, 10-15, 109-110; Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). The emigrants had to go through endless hardship, varying from walking the entire journey to deadly unknown diseases (Boettcher and Trinklein; Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). According to the Oregon-California Trails Association, expected mothers were common emigrants to travel on the trail, meaning that majority of the wagons on the trail had at least one expectant mother (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Thousands of babies were on the Oregon Trail. When the food was limited, babies would cry, not understanding why they weren’t getting fed (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). They would become malnourished and desperately thin (McGill; Boettcher and Trinklein). When the need for food became urgent, babies were passed from mother to mother in order to be fed milk that they desperately needed to keep them alive (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Those babies, thin and helpless, often had their lives taken by the trail. The Oregon Trail was a hostile and deadly route, though many don’t know the severity of the conditions on the trail. There are many stories gone unknown that show a family’s amazing perseverance through the trail. This article covers the eventful but unknown journey of the True family’s trek over the Oregon Trail, providing parts of Charley True’s journal to show what the Oregon Trail was like through the eyes of an emigrant. Having to deal... ...r disasters, and a bout of cholera within their wagon party. The last few stretches of the trail were the most difficult, though (Wagner, 109-110). A supposed shortcut turned out to be a dangerous and deadly trail that could have killed us all. After crossing a river, going through mountains, and pushing through desert, we faced all the fears of nature. We saw other families go down in the raging rivers and drown (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). Frostbite and cold were associated with the mountains. Rattlesnake bites and dehydration were apparent in the desert (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail). In these last days, each day became harder and harder. More people were getting buried under the ground in shallow graves, and even more things had to be thrown out. The feet of the oxen split, and their shoes fell off (Life and Death on the Oregon Trail).

Pearl Harbor :: essays research papers

Pearl Harbor was one of the most vicious attacks on American soil. The surprise attack by Japan took place on Sunday morning December 7, 1941. Japan wanted to immobilize U.S.’s Pacific fleet and destroy any chance of a counter strike in from the Pacific. The United States responded by creating Japanese-American Internment Camps, which uprooted tens of thousands of Japanese-American families. And later America decided to use atomic weapons to end the war with Japan. Tension between Japan and the United States started in 1931. Japan had taken over Manchuria, which was then a part of China. In 1937 Japan had started a campaign to conquer the rest of China that was long lasting and didn’t work. In 1940 Japan signed the Axis Alliance with Germany and occupied all of Indochina the next year. The U.S. was worried by Japan’s movements because of economic interests that the United States had in East Asia. The U.S. strengthened military aid to China and increased financial aid. They also built up the military in the Pacific. The U.S. also cut off shipments of oil and raw materials to Japan. Japanese government saw this move as a threat to Japan’s survival because Japan doesn’t have many natural resources. Japan’s next plan was to take control of the territories of South East Asia that have good amounts of natural resources, even though it would start a war with the United States. (Lord,Walter. Day of Infamy ) (www.histo ry.navy.mil) (http://campus.northpark.edu) The only thing that stood in the way of this plan was the threat posed by the U.S. Pacific fleet stationed in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the leader of the Japanese fleet, was the mastermind behind the plan to cripple the U.S. fleet. Yamamoto wanted to disable the U.S. Pacific fleet by destroying enough ships, airfields, runways, planes, support facilities, and 4.5 billion gallons of fuel so that there was no chance for a counter attack. As Yamamoto put it he wanted to destroy the â€Å"dagger pointed at our throat†. (Beck, Roger. Black, Linda. Krieger, Larry. Naylor, Phillip. Ibo Shabaka, Dahia. â€Å"World History† pg.827 – 830) Yamamoto devised a clever plan that would have the attacking Japanese follow a storm front and keep strict radio silence to avoid being detected by American radar. The Japanese attack was led by Vice-Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and consisted of 6 aircraft carriers, 2 battleships, and 2 cruisers.

Housmans To An Athlete Dying Young :: Poem Housman Athlete Dying Essays

Housman's "To An Athlete Dying Young" A. E. Housman's "To an Athlete Dying Young," also known as Lyric XIX in A Shropshire Lad, holds as its main theme the premature death of a young athlete as told from the point of view of a friend serving as pall bearer. The poem reveals the concept that those dying at the peak of their glory or youth are really quite lucky. The first few readings of "To an Athlete Dying Young" provides the reader with an understanding of Housman's view of death. Additional readings reveal Housman's attempt to convey the classical idea that youth, beauty, and glory can be preserved only in death. A line-by-line analysis helps to determine the purpose of the poem. The first stanza of the poem tells of the athlete's triumph and his glory filled parade through the town in which the crowd loves and cheers for him. As Bobby Joe Leggett defines at this point, the athlete is "carried of the shoulders of his friends after a winning race" (54). In Housman's words: The time you won your town the race We chaired you through the market place; Man and boy stood cheering by, And home we brought you shoulder-high. (Housman 967). Stanza two describes a much more somber procession. The athlete is being carried to his grave. In Leggett's opinion, "The parallels between this procession and the former triumph are carefully drawn" (54). The reader should see that Housman makes another reference to "shoulders" as an allusion to connect the first two stanzas: Today, the road all runners come, Shoulder high we bring you home, And set you at the threshold down, Townsman of a stiller town. (967) In stanza three Housman describes the laurel growing "early" yet dying "quicker than a rose." (967) This parallels "the 'smart lad' who chose to 'slip betimes away' at the height of his fame" (Explicator 188). Leggett's implication of this parallel is "that death, too is a victory" (54). He should consider himself lucky that he died in his prime and will not out live his fame. Housman says: Eyes the shady night has shut Cannot see the record cut, And silence sounds no worse than cheers After earth has stopped the ears. (967) Leggett feels that "death in the poem becomes the agent by which the process of change is halted" (54). In the next stanza symbolism is used as the physical world is in Leggett's terms, "The field where glories do not stay" (54). "Fame and beauty are represented by a rose and the laurel, which are both subject to decay," Leggett explains (54). The athlete dying is described here by Housman:

Agricultural economics

Department of Economics, Punjabi University, Patiala (Punjab), India. E-mail: 2Assistant Professor, Department of Distance Education, Punjabi University, Patiala (Punjab), India. E-mail: Abstract: A progressive agriculture serves as a powerful engine of economic growth of any country. It helps in initiating and sustaining the development of other sectors of the economy. In view of this, after independence the Government of India adopted a positive approach and specific programmes like new agriculture technology were introduced. Indian farmers being poor were not in a position to buy these expensive inputs.Then the Indian Government started the scheme of subsidies on the purchase of various agriculture inputs to facilitate the farmers. Subsidies are often criticized for their financial burden, on the other hand there is a fear that agriculture production and income of farmers would decline if subsidies are curtailed. The findings indicate that the increasing rate of total subsidies (f ertilizers, electricity and irrigation) is higher than gross cropped area (GCA) during pre, first as well as second phase of liberalization periods.There is a lot of variation to find out the relationship between gross cropped area (GCA) and in total subsidies in zones throughout the study period. The present study suggests that Government should keep aside its motive to please voters or strengthen the vote bank, it should frame rational policy in which small size category farmers, who are not actual beneficiaries of subsidies, could get more and subsides, which they do not want should be withdrawn.Keywords:-agriculture, electricity subsidy, fertilizers subsidies, irrigation subsidy, productivity. I. Introduction The socio – economic structure, which prevailed prior to the British rule in the country, resulted in the organization of self-sufficient villages. It has been maintaining some kind of static equilibrium. The Indian peasant, though not properly educated, has adequate experience of farming systems and he has been dependent on it for the means of living.The Royal commission of Agriculture in India observed that both the methods of cultivation and social organization exhibit that settled order which is characteristic of all countries in which the cultivating peasant has long lived in and closely adapted himself to the conditions of a particular environment. The Indian agrarian economy on the eve of independence was critical in situation. It could be characterized totally primitive, deteriorative and turbulent.After partition, the country is left with 82 per cent of the total population of undivided India as well as only with 69 per cent of land under rice, 65 per cent under wheat and 75 per cent under all cereals. The deficiency of food grains is quite alarming and aggravating at that time (Chahal, 1999). In view of this, after independence tremendous efforts are made to boost the economy through agriculture as one of the tools for development.The Government of India adopted a more positive approach and hence a well definedpolicy of integrated production programmes with defined targets and a proper distribution programme is adopted along with other measures for the overall economic development of the country. Specific programmes like new agriculture technology are introduced to convert agriculture into a successful and prosperous business, to bring more land under cultivation and to raise agriculture production. In India, the adoption of new agricultural technique is costly than that of traditional method of cultivation.In traditional method, inputs are least expensive, on the other hand, inputs in modern technology like high yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers, farm mechanization and irrigation are very costly and Indian farmers being poor are not in a position to buy these expensive inputs. Then on the recommendations of food grain price committee (Jha Committee), the Government of India started the scheme of subsidie s on purchase of various agriculture inputs to facilitate the farmers (Singh, 1994).Subsidies have occupied agricultural economists for a long time because they are pervasive in agriculture, even though they are often applied in ways that benefit mostly richer farmers, cause inefficiencies, lead to a heavy fiscal burden, distort trade, and have negative environmental effects. Agricultural subsidies can play an important role in early phases of agricultural development by addressing market failures and promoting new technologies (Fan, 2008).All of these subsidies by reducing the prices of the inputs, served in the initial stages of green revolution, as incentives to the farmers for adopting the newly introduced seed-cum-fertilizer technology. These helped in raising the agricultural output, after some time, the amount paid on these subsidies began to rise. The input subsidies have often been accused of causing most harmful effect in terms of reduced public investment in agriculture o n account of the erosion of investible resources, and wasteful use of scarce resources like water and Agricultural Subsidies In India Boon Or Cursewww. iosrjournals. org 41 | Page power. Further, apart from causing unsustainable fiscal deficits, these subsidies by encouraging the intensive use of inputs in limited pockets have led to lowering the productivity of inputs, reducing employment elasticity of output through the substitution of capital for labour and environmental degradation such as lowering of water tables. (Gulati, 2003).In India, at present centre as well as state governments are providing subsidies on fertilizers, irrigation (canal water), electricity and other subsidies to marginal farmers and farmers’ cooperative societies in the form of seeds, development of oil seeds, pulses, cotton, rice, maize and crop insurance schemes and price support schemes etc. Out of these subsidies, the Central Government of India provides indirect subsidies to farmers on the purc hase of fertilizers from 1977, whereas state governments are providing subsidies on irrigation as well as on electricity (Government of Punjab, Agriculture Department, Chandigarh).Review of literature of the past theory and practice is necessary when conducting any research work. Sharma, (1982) examined the impact of agricultural subsidies on national income and agricultural production. For this purpose the author used the time period from 1970-71 to 1981-82 and a general equilibrium model. The study revealed that during this period, agricultural subsidies affected the national income and agriculture production positively. Gupta, (1984) tried to analyse the agricultural subsidies in India from 1970-71 to 1982- 83.The author used linear regression model. The study showed that during this period, the use of agricultural subsidies increased at faster rate but there was a large inter-state disparity. Sharma, (1990) revealed in this study that subsidies have become unsustainable. In orde r to release resources for higher investments in the agricultural sector, large scale price and institutional reforms are needed to relieve the pressure of subsidies on the exchequer. Gulati, (2007)reviewed the trends in government subsidies and investments in and for Indian agriculture.The author suggested that to sustain long-term growth in agricultural production and therefore provide a long-term solution to poverty reduction, the government should cut subsidies of fertilizer, irrigation, Power and credit and increase investments in agricultural research and development, rural, infrastructure and education. Promoting non-farm opportunities are also important. From the above studies, it may conclude that agriculture subsidies are a worldwide phenomenon.Some studies showed the distribution pattern of agriculture subsidies in different countries and in different states of India. Whereas some studies showed the impact of agriculture subsidies on income of farmers of different states of India, on agriculture production, on gross cropped area, on cropping pattern etc. Subsidies are often criticized for their financial burden. Some researchers assert to the extent that these should be withdrawn in a phased manner, such a step will reduce the fiscal deficit, improve the efficiency of resources use, funds for public investment in agriculture.On the other hand, there is a fear that agriculture production and income of farmers would decline if subsidies are curtailed. These are very important issues, which need serious investigation. Subsidies are often criticized for their financial burden. The objectives of the present study are to study the growth and distribution of agricultural subsidies in India, to study the impact of agricultural subsidies in India, to suggest ways and means for giving agricultural subsidies to farmers of India.The present study is related to agricultural subsidies in India from 1980-81 to 2008-09. In this study agriculture subsidies of fertil izers, electricity, irrigation (canal water), seeds, machinery etc. are discussed during pre-liberalisation period (1980-81 to 1985-86), first phase of liberalisation period (1990-91 to 1996-97) as well as during second phase of liberalisation period (2000-01 to 2008-09). For analysing the growth and distribution pattern of agriculture subsidies, five zones i. e.south zone (includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep), west zone (includes Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Goa, Daman and Diu and Dadra Nagar Haveli), east zone (Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal), north zone (Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and Chandigarh) and north-east zone (Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Sikkim) have been taken.II. Gross Cropped Area in India Land is the fundamental basis for the most of the huma n or natural activities and is one of the major natural resources on earth. Agricultural productivity is entirely dependent on the availability of suitable land (State of Environment Punjab – 2007). In India, there are competing demands of area available for cultivation from increase in rural habitations, forestation, urbanisation and industrialisation.Consequently, gross cropped area in the country has registered a rapid deceleration in its growth over time (Bhalla, 2009). In this section, an attempt is made to analyse the gross copped area (GCA), total subsidies, fertilizers, electricity and subsidies at India as well as zone levels. The gross cropped area (GCA) in India during 1980-81 to 2006-07 is shown in table 1. This table reveals the west zone got topmost position, followed by north zone, south zone, east zone and north-east zone throughout the study period.In India, GCA has shown variations i. e. it has increased from 1,73,324 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 1,85,403 thousand hectares in 1990-91 and further increased to 1,88,601 thousand hectares in 1996-97, it has declined to 1,86,565 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and further declined to 1,75,678 thousand hectares in 2006-07. As zone-wise analysis shows that in west zone, the GCA has Agricultural Subsidies In India Boon Or Curse www. iosrjournals. org 42 | Page increased from 69,882 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 75,659 thousand hectares in 1990-91 and further increased to 78,097 thousand hectares in 1996-97 and declined to 72,833 thousand hectares in 2006-07.In north zone, it has increased from 38,806 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 42,132 thousand hectares in 1996-97 and declined to 39,780 thousand hectares in 2006-07, whereas in south zone, the GCA has increased from 32,363 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 34,688 thousand hectares in 1990-91 and further increased to 35,333 thousand hectares in 1996-97 and declined to 35,271 thousand hectares in 2000-01 and again increased to 36,368 thousand hectares in 2006-07.In east zone, the GCA has increased from 27,514 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 28,741 thousand hectares in 1990-91 and declined to 27,416 thousand hectares in 1996-97 and further declined to 20,246 thousand hectares in 2006-07, on the hand the GCA has increased from 4,759 thousand hectares in 1980-81 to 5,163 thousand hectares in 1985-86 and further increased to 6,451 thousand hectares in 2006-07 in north-east zone. Agricultural economics Agriculture is defined as â€Å"the cultivation of land for the purpose of producing food for man, feed for animal and fibre or raw material for industrial companies. It also includes the processing marketing of crops. In other words, it embraces all activities involved in the primary and controlled production of plant and animals, such as fishing, forestry, farming, livestock, poultry and small scale industries connected with processing of agricultural products. The agricultural sector forms the background of Nigeria economy despite concerted effort in industralisation.Agriculture occupies the pride place as the source of livelihood for over 70 percent of the population. It is recognized as a pre-requisite to economic development. With large scale dependence on agriculture for food, raw-material for industries etc, one would expect production to increase, rather it is disheartening to note that this is not the case. Agriculture has suffered some neglect due to lack of investment si nce the inception of oil boom in 1970. In fact, Nigeria is experiencing a decline in the space of agricultural production in general, this situation is causing a great concern to the government.Throughout the 1960s, Agriculture contributed 61. 5%. in the 1970s, it declined miserably be 2. 3%. This decline may be attributed to the domination of the nations export by oil since 1970 which accounted for 57. 6% of total export income and rose steadily, attaining an overwhelming proportion of 98% in 1981. As a result there was an absolute neglect in agriculture to both God (Gross Domestic Product) and export earnings which has been the major factor dictating the need to reactivate our agricultural products.The need for this re-activity and in effort to revamp this sector has been the reason for raising budgetary allocation in recent years to it. It rose from 6% in 1970s to 22% in 1984. this increase acts as incentive and motivation to farmers, but these farmers while engaging in these agr icultural ventures are exposed to a lot of problem like diseases and pest attacks, fire destructions, industrial pollution, machinery breakdown and other problems. To these problems, the farmers need some aids in solving or minimizing them. Finance has been one of themost significant problems in the expansion of agricultural production. This was as a result of the neglect of the agricultural sector following the oil boom of 1970s, when the oil sector become a major aspect of the Nigerian’s foreign exchange earning. This contributed to the inadequate funding of the agricultural sector unlike before the boom. Also the establishment of industries in the urban areas during the 1990 – 1994 National Development plan to boast industrialization drew the rural populace with constitute the farming population to urban cities for search of white color jobs.A stage has reached, that average Nigerians are now underfed. In the words of or P. N. C. Akimbo in 1990 â€Å"The average Ni gerian consumed on the average, some 20. 23 calories per day and 56. 46 grammes of protein per day compared to the food and agricultural organization (FAO)minimum of 21. 91 calaries and 53. 8 grammes of protein. The average Nigerian was and still, is among the worst fed in the world.As a result of these situations; the successive Nigerian Governments showed concern over the decline situation of Agricultural production through policies and programmes aimed at revamping the agricultural production in attempt to encourage increase food production â€Å"The federal Government in 1993 tried the National Accelerated food production in programme (NAFPP) during the General Yakulu Gowon’s regime; Under the leadership of General Obasanjo, the Operation feed the Nation programme â€Å"(OFN) in 1976; Green Revolution came up under President Shehu Shagari and Directorate of food Road and Rural infrastructure under the regime of General Basangida regime. Neither of these measures halted the Agricultural decline or any lasting effect on food production.This is because â€Å"little or no meaningful attempt has been made to change the under developed status of the rural dwellers notwithstanding that these people constitute about 95 percent of the total population engaged in Agricultural in Nigeria. It has been attributed that inadequate funding of agricultural project and programme has contributed in large measures to the government low production of Agriculture in Nigeria, and the government and other financial institutions forms the major sources of finance for Agriculture though policies and programmes. Then what role and impact has the central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) as the bank at the apex of Nigeria Banking system, (Bank of last resort, bank to the government and Banker to other banks)† played to reinforce the government policies or revamp the agricultural sector of the economy.The under – developed characteristic of the Nigerian economy has made the central Bank of Nigeria to be activity involved in the promotion of rapid economic development of other sector especially agriculture through its development roles unlike in developed economics where the role of central Bank is restricted to development of the financial system. According to Dr Belshaw in his book entitled â€Å"Agricultural credit in economically under-developed countries he wrote that â€Å"in respect of agricultural credit, a central Bank has an important part to play by helping to establish, strengthen and promote the extension of commercial banking facilities and agricultural credit institutions. Professor G.Nwankwo also wrote â€Å"it for instance mistaken to think and believe that only the function of a central Bank is to control or regulate the financial system; it was not conoinced nor thought to be an appropriate function that a central Bank also has to the task of developing the financial system if non existed and of organizing and mobilization of reso urces for development. To this end, the central Bank of Nigeria embarked on some programmes and policies to curb the under economic development and low trend in agricultural production. These policies include the following : i. The provision of credit to marketing board for the purchase of some agricultural produce for export.This has become the sole responsibility of the central Bank of Nigeria since May 1968, when the commercial financial still was abolished by the federal Government. ii. The establishment of the Nigeria Agricultural Bank (NAB) in 1976, this Nigerian Agricultural co-operative societies, improve agricultural production and storage facilities and promote marketing of agricultural products through liberal credits to farmers at softer terms. The bank started with a capital of #6 million which has increased to #250 million in 1991 with the CBN contributing 40 percent while the Federal Government has 60 percent share. The functions of the banks includes: grant in of loa ns to small and medium scale farmers. iii.The CBM also used another instrument in financing of agriculture, this is through its credit guidelines contained in its monetary and fiscal policies circulars which required the commercial banks to give preferential treatment to Agriculture. iv. The establishment of Agricultural credit Guarantee scheme fund (ACGSF) in 1977 by both the federal Government and the central Bank of Nigeria. The Act provided #100 million subscribed by the federal government, and the CBN at the ration of 60 percent or #60 million to the federal Government, 40 percent or #40 million to CBN. This is to grantee for loan default made by commercial banks to farmers for Agricultural purposes to the time of 75% of the default. The CBN was also appointed the managing agent of the fund. 2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEMSDespite the various policies and programmes mapped out annually for the economic development of Nigeria with emphasis on Agriculture, the agricultural production lev el remained very low and recently on the decline. Finance has been traced to be the major handicap to the typical Nigeria farmer, inadequacy of modern farming equipment, inputs, basic infrastructure and storage facilities, marketing and distribution system. Then the central Bank of Nigeria – the apex bank has been mandated by the federal Government of Nigeria to find a solution to these problems. Consequently, the central bank of Nigeria through its agencies grant credit for the purpose of agriculture. But was faced with the following problems. – Inadequate public enlightenment – Mismanagement – Technological constraints – Poor land tenure system – Environmental constraints– Above all financial constraints. Identifying financial constraints as the major handicap to increase agricultural production. The federal government increased its spending on agriculture by 12. 7 percent in 1981 as against 6. 5 percent in 1970’s. a total of #8 million was allocated to agriculture during the five years National Development plan 1981 – 85. still not much has been achieved in food production. To this end, the federal Government through the CBN policies and programmes aimed at adequate financing to increase agricultural productivity, for a nation that can not feed herself is said to be economically undeveloped. 3. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDYThe major objective of this study is to determine and appraise the performance of the central Bank of Nigeria and its agencies to agricultural finance and development. This involves: i. To identify the central Bank of Nigeria policies in relation to Nigeria Agriculture. ii. To evaluate various measures introduced to boost agricultural production and agricultural financing and how this affected the realization of the agricultural goals and iii. To identify the problems associated with the implementation of these policies and suggest solution so as to improve agricultural production. 4 . SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Unless the cause of a problem is found, any attempt at solving the problem would likely be effort in futility. But when the basic causes of a problem are identified, solution would be easily found.This research work on the impact of central bank of Nigeria policies in relation to Nigeria agriculture would be of immense importance to the policy and credit guideline makers in ascertaining the efficiency of these policies on agriculture in particular and the economy in general. Also from the recommendations and suggestions, the problems and causes of failures in implementation would be taken care of. As the policies involves many financial and other credit institution the research would be of great worth to these institution, for instance, It would help in assessing the performance and cause of default in credit extension under the Agricultural credit Guarantee scheme fund (ACGSF), the Nigerian Agricultural co-operative bank (NACB) Credit and loan system. Th e research work when completed will be of use to the following: -The farmers and Agriculturist -The central bank of Nigeria (Federal Government).-The entire economy -Finally, this work will serve as an addition to the already existing literature and references in the area of policies of central Bank of Nigeria agricultural financing, monetary economics and finance in general. 5. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The major source of some very vital data on the work of course is the central bank of Nigeria but because of its own policies, the major information areas are not accessible to the public. To this regard, the research has selected the salient roles of the central bank necessary for the research and finically examined and evaluated the effects of these policies in relation to agriculture.It is also very pertinent to state that the scope of this work generally is restricted to the programmes of agricultural financing that are directly under the supervision and control of the central ban k of Nigeria. 6. STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS The central bank of Nigeria (CBN) through its policies and programmes has made remarkable impact in Agricultural financing in Nigeria. The central bank of Nigeria (CBN) through its policies and programmes has made no impact in Agriculture financing in Nigeria. The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) through its polices and programmes has evaluated various measures introduce to boost agricultural production. The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) through its policies and programmes has made no remarkable measure to boost agricultural production. 7. DEFINITION OF TERMSIt is necessary here to introduce operational definition of some concept to be commonly used in this study for better understanding of the study. These terms are as follows. Development: this means the process of sustained increase in both per capital income and total income accompanied by structural modification of the social economic and political environment. Economic growth: This refers to the steady process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about rising levels of national income. Economic Development: This can be known as nothing less than â€Å"The upward movement of the entire social system or it many be interpreted as the attainment of a number of ideas of modernization such as a rise in productivity, social and economic equal section.Modern knowledge, improved institutions and attitudes and a traditionally co-ordinate systems of policy measures that can remove the host of undesirable conditions in the social system that have perpetuated a state of under development†. Financial Institution: These are institutions either private or public that channels loanable funds from savers to borrowers. Example commercial banks and development banks. Policy: This is a cause oaf action pursed by the government to achieve some development is also a source of raw materials for the teaming industries the product for which mo dern man has virtually become over dependent on†. Butterssing these parts.Enikanselu (1985) stated thus† agriculture besides providing food for the people contributes positively to capital accumulation for the purpose of financing the industrial sector†. He maintained that the role of Agriculture in the economic development of a nation includes providing an initial stage of development, the purchasing power for the industrialization of the economy by supplying the necessary raw – materials for industries. Uka (1986) in his own opinion on the importance of Agriculture to Nigeria economy assert that â€Å"Food is a basic necessity of life; and it is only on a firm basis of food production that virile economy can be founded.Besides, dependent on external sources of food supply has grave instability consequence because it ties the nations independence to the international policies. Writing on the importance of Agriculture and the preferential treatment given to it by the central bank of Nigeria in policy consider eration and allocation, Egba (1978) Stressed that â€Å"since 1969 when the first circular was issued to banks, the CBN has consistently given preferential treatment to agriculture which was included in the broad sector refered to as production†. This preferential treatment covers both the volume of loans allocated to the sector and the interest rate chargeable on such loans.Agriculture provides the greatest avenue for employment, income and food for Nigerian populace. Also the position of agriculture as a source of raw-materials for key industries and a major foreign exchange earner. Thus the government has given such priority to agricultural production because of its realization of the numerous contributions. A highly developed agricultural sector could make to the development of the Nigerian economy Olayade (1986) said â€Å"the agricultural sector provides employment for about 67% of the active population in the count ry. It is abundantly clear therefore that this sector has constituted the back bone of our economy until only recently.