Profile of Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery

English surgeon Joseph Lister  (April 5, 1827–February 10, 1912), Baron Lister of Lyme Regis, is considered the father of modern surgery for his  work developing sterilization procedures that saved countless lives. Lister pioneered the use of carbolic acid for sanitizing operating rooms and employed antiseptic surgical procedures to prevent deadly postoperative infections. Early Years Born on April 5, 1827 in Essex, England, Joseph Lister was the fourth of seven children born to Joseph Jackson Lister and Isabella Harris. Listers parents were devout Quakers, and his father was a successful wine merchant with scientific interests of his own: he invented the first achromatic microscope lens, an endeavor that earned him the honor of being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. The young Listers love for science grew as he became fascinated with the microscopic world introduced to him by his father. Lister decided at an early age that he wanted to become a surgeon and thus prepared for this eventual career by delving into science and mathematics subjects at the Quaker schools he attended in London.   After entering the University of London in 1844, Lister earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1847 and a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery in 1852. Listers achievements during this time included serving as house surgeon at the University College Hospital of the University of London and being selected as a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. Research and Personal Life In 1854, Lister went to the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary in Scotland to study under the famous surgeon James Syme. Under Syme, Listers professional and personal life flourished: he met and married Symes daughter, Agnes, in 1856. Agnes was  invaluable as a wife and partner, assisting Joseph with  his medical research and laboratory experiments. Joseph Listers research was centered on inflammation and its impact on wound healing. He published a number of papers regarding muscle activity in the skin and eyes, coagulation of blood, and blood vessel engorgement during inflammation. Listers research led to his appointment as Regius Professor of Surgery at the University of Glasgow in 1859. In 1860, he was named a Fellow of the Royal Society. Implementation of Antisepsis By 1861, Lister was leading the surgical ward at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. During this time in history, surgery was performed only when absolutely necessary due to high death rates associated with infections. With little understanding of how germs like bacteria caused disease, surgical procedures were regularly performed in  unsanitary conditions. In an attempt to combat wound infections, Lister began to employ cleanliness techniques used by Florence Nightingale and others. This process involved keeping the environment clean, changing dressings, and washing hands. However, it was not until he read the works of  Louis Pasteur that Lister began to link germs with surgical wounds. While Lister was not the first to suggest that microorganisms were the cause of hospital associated diseases or that infections could be reduced through antiseptic methods, he was able to marry these ideas and effectively implement treatment for wound infections. In 1865, Lister began using carbolic acid (phenol), a substance used in sewage treatment, as an antiseptic to treat compound fracture wounds. These injuries were commonly treated by amputation, as they involved penetration of the skin and significant tissue damage. Lister used carbolic acid for hand washing and treatment of surgical incisions and dressings. He even developed an instrument for spraying carbolic acid into the air in the operating room. Lifesaving Antiseptic Success Listers first success case was  an eleven year old boy who had suffered injuries from a horse cart accident. Lister employed antiseptic procedures during treatment, then found that the boys fractures and wounds healed without infection. Further success ensued as nine of eleven other cases where carbolic acid was used to treat wounds showed no signs of infection. In 1867, three articles written by Lister were published in Londons weekly medical journal, The Lancet. The articles outlined Listers method of antiseptic treatment based on the germ theory. In August of 1867, Lister announced at the Dublin meeting of the British Medical Association that no deaths associated with blood poisoning or gangrene had occurred since antiseptic methods had been fully employed in his wards at Glasgows Royal Infirmary. Later Life and Honors In 1877, Lister assumed the chair of Clinical Surgery at Kings College in London and began practicing at Kings College Hospital. There, he continued to research ways to improve his antiseptic methods and develop new methods for treating injuries. He popularized the use of gauze bandages for wound treatment, developed rubber drainage tubes, and created ligatures made from sterile catgut for stitching wounds. While Listers ideas of antisepsis were not immediately accepted by many of his peers, his ideas eventually gained nearly worldwide acceptance. For his outstanding achievements in surgery and medicine, Joseph Lister was ennobled a Baronet by Queen Victoria  in 1883 and  received  the title Sir Joseph Lister. In 1897, he was made Baron Lister of Lyme Regis and awarded the Order of Merit by King Edward VII in 1902. Death and Legacy Joseph Lister retired in 1893 following the death of his beloved wife Agnes. He later suffered a stroke, but was still able to consult on treatment for King Edward VIIs appendicitis surgery in 1902. By 1909, Lister had lost the ability to read or write. Nineteen years after the passing of his wife, Joseph Lister died on February 10, 1912 at Walmer in Kent, England. He was 84 years old. Joseph Lister revolutionized surgical practices by applying the germ theory to surgery. His willingness to experiment with new surgical techniques led to the development of antiseptic methods that focused on keeping wounds free of pathogens. While changes have been made to Listers antisepsis methods and materials, his antiseptic principles remain the foundation for todays medical practice of asepsis (total elimination of microbes) in surgery. Joseph Lister Fast Facts Full Name: Joseph ListerAlso Known As: Sir Joseph Lister, Baron Lister of Lyme RegisKnown For: First to implement antiseptic method in surgery; father of modern surgeryBorn: April 5, 1827 in Essex, EnglandParents Names: Joseph Jackson Lister and Isabella HarrisDied: February 10, 1912 in Kent, EnglandEducation: University of London, Bachelor of Medicine and SurgeryPublished Works: On a New Method of Treating Compound Fracture, Abscess, etc. with Observation on the Conditions of Suppuration (1867); On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery (1867); and Illustrations of the Antiseptic System of Treatment in Surgery (1867)Spouse Name: Agnes Syme (1856-1893)Fun Fact: Listerine mouthwash and the bacterial genus Listeria were named after Lister Sources Fitzharris, Lindsey. The Butchering Art: Joseph Listers Quest to Transform the Grisly World of Victorian Medicine. Scientific American / Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017. Gaw, Jerry L. A Time to Heal: the Diffusion of Listerism in Victorian Britain. American Philosophical Society, 1999. Pitt, Dennis, and Jean-Michel Aubin. Joseph Lister: Father of Modern Surgery. National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Oct. 2012, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3468637/. Simmons, John Galbraith. Doctors and Discoveries: Lives That Created Todays Medicine.  Houghton Mifflin, 2002.

Writing And Creating Real Purposes For Writing - 866 Words

Topic 8 -The development of Writing and creating real purposes for writing. A well-developed writer has a sound knowledge of key components such as, organisation, language the use of grammar and spelling. In order for young children to develop their skills in writing they need to have a variety of opportunities to see, hear, role play and have group discussions to develop their understanding. When children begin to write they can tell more complex stories then they can transcribe as they have to refine certain skills such as, forming letters, writing letters without reversals, learning to spell, writing in lines from left to right, making written word correspond to a spoken word, and correctly hold a pencil. This was seen in the textbook in an example of a five-year-old girl named Alex. Alex writes a simple line of letters strung together, however her interpretation of the letters was knowledgeable and imaginative when she read the story orally. Alex well above what she was able to communicate in written form. Did anyone else find the comparison to her written language to her spoken language as astonishing as I did? Although the comparison shocked me, after more reading it appeared to made sense that Alex had well developed writing ideas, because if we presume Alex had years of books being read aloud to her, and an exposure to a literacy filled environment it is understood how Alex has developed her vocabulary, imagination and syntax in her oral story telling abilities.Show MoreRelatedTeaching Writing Is An Exciting Time For Any Classroom Essay1419 Words   |  6 PagesTeaching Writing Teaching literature is an exciting time in any classroom. New Zealand Government (n.d.) reports â€Å"New Zealand children rank relatively highly on the international literacy scales†. This shows that New Zealanders value their literacy abilities, and work hard to upkeep our reputation. 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Music and Personality free essay sample

Extraverts tend to eek out songs with heavy bass lines, while those who enjoy more complex styles such as jazz and classical music tend to be more creative and have higher IQ-scores. Why music is such a significant part of peoples identity? People may define their musical identity by wearing particular clothes, going to certain pubs, and using certain types of slang. So its not so surprising that personality should be related to musical preference. People can get defensive about what they like to listen to, as it is likely to be profoundly linked to their outlook on life.The study also demonstrates the tribal function of musical east that can explain why people often bond over music. North (scientist) noted that classical and heavy metal music both attracts listeners with similar personalities but dissimilar ages. Younger members of the personality group apparently go for heavy metal, while their older counterparts prefer classical. The study also demonstrates the tribal function of musical taste that can explain why people often bond over music. North (scientist) noted that classical and heavy metal music both attracts listeners with similar personalities but dissimilar ages. Younger members of the personality group apparently go for heavy metal, while their older counterparts prefer classical. However, both have the same basic motivation: to hear something dramatic and theatrical, a shared love of the grandiose, he said. The general public has held a stereotype of heavy metal fans being suicidal depressed and being a danger to themselves and society in general, he said, but they are quite delicate things. Aside from their age, theyre basically the same kind of person [as a classical music fan]. Lots of heavy metal fans will tell you that they also Like Wagner, because Its big, loud and brash. Theres also a sense of theater In both heavy rock and classical music, and I suspect that this is what theyre really trying to get at when they listen to that kind of music.I think that both types of music, classical and heavy metal, both have something of the spiritual about them -? thieve very dramatic -? a lot happens. The study conducted by researchers at Heritor-Watt university looked at more than 6,000 participants from all over the world. Participants were asked to rate more than 104 different musical styles in addition to offering information about aspects of their personality. Of course this helps explain why people who like the same styles of music tend to stick together, but it goes deeper than Just a similar interests thing Its almost suggests a new kind of tribalism.He described the findings as dramatic and To my mind, writing a portrait of my group, describing their tas tes and trying to reveal what kind of music they do prefer would give me a really hard time. We have something in common. Those 4 years of co-existing in the same community brought up the similar views on particular things and music is one of them. Thats why if I asked them what style of music they prefer, they would probably answer, l cant say exactly. I listen to everything that I like, to everything that is pleasant to my ear. I know those guys, most of them would answer this way, believe me. ) So Vive decided to make a test, Just there, on the spot. To find out what kind of music appeals to them more and consequently discover something new about their personal traits. Unfortunately I didnt have an opportunity to try it out, but anyway the preparation itself was useful and interesting experience for me). I have 10 tracks (songs) on the CD, each student is to decide which song appeal to him more. But mind! Only one song! The number of the song refers to the number of the style of music in the list below. 1. Pop Do you prefer to listen to the top 40 hits?Do the latest tracks from Iranian, Selene Gomez and Flow Arid make up your workout mix? If so, chances are that you also tend to be extroverted, honest and conventional. While pop music lovers are hard-working ND have high self-esteem, researchers suggests that they tend to be less creative and more uneasy. 2. Rap and Hip/Hop Are Snoop Dog and Dry. Drew more your style? In spite of the stereotype that rap lovers are more aggressive or violent, researchers have actually found no such link. Rap fans do tend to have high self-esteem and are usually outgoing. . Country Mould you rather watch CM instead of MET? Country music fans are typically hardworking, conventional and outgoing. While country songs are often centered on heartbreak, people who gravitate towards this genre tend to be very emotionally stable. 4. Rock / Heavy Metal Despite the sometimes aggressive image that rock music and heavy metal project, researchers found that fans of this style of music are usually quite gentle. They tend to be creative, but are often introverted and may suffer from low self-esteem. 5. Indies Just in caseIndependent music (often shortened to Indies music or Indies) is music produced independently from major commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, Do-let-Yourself approach to recording and publishing. The term Indies is sometimes also used to describe a genre (such as Indies sock or Indies pop); as a genre term, Indies may include music that is not independently produced, and most independent music artists do not fall into a single, defined musical style or genre and usually create music that can be categorized into other genres. Do you love seeking out obscure bands and Indies artists? Fans of the Indies genre are typically introverted, intellectual and creative. According to researchers, they also tend to be less hard-working and less gentle. Passivity, anxiousness and low self- esteem are other common personality characteristics. 6. Dance Do you love the fast-paced rhythms of dance music? According to researchers, people No prefer dance music are usually outgoing and assertive. 7. Classical themselves and the world around them.They are creative and have a good sense of self-esteem. 8. Jazz, Blues and Soul People who enjoy Jazz, blues or soul music were found to be more extroverted with high self-esteem. They also tend to be very creative, intelligent and at ease. The research has also looked at income vs. music tastes, and found that higher income music loves like punchy and exciting music, whereas lower income listeners refer more relaxing music in general. Of course there will always be exceptions, but his findings were quite telling on a general level.The research also found that as a whole, people who are into music are fairly well- rounded, creative and at ease with themselves. Much of his research is described in his book . As this is the first time that this type of research has been done in a scientific way, there is still much to find out. So, the next time you are putting together a plastic to listen to during your commute or workout, consider how your personality might be reflected in your song choices.

The Ethicality of an Action Jay Gatsby

Ethics is a field of study that defines human actions and behaviors. Scholars have presented different ethical theories to explain when an action should be accepted or condoned. In our modern society, actions are ethical or unethical depending on their implications.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on The Ethicality of an Action Jay Gatsby specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More While that is the case, very little research has been done to explore the ethicality of actions performed by characters in works of fiction such as films, novels, and television shows. In the book â€Å"The Great Gatsby†, Jay Gatsby decides to take Daisy Buchanan’s blame. This happens after Daisy kills Myrtle Wilson. Myrtle was her husband’s â€Å"mistress†. This was one of Jay’s efforts to win Daisy’s love. Jay and Daisy were lovers before he became wealthy. This paper describes Jay Gatsby’s act ion and applies the utilitarian theory to establish whether Jay’s action was ethical or not. Jay Gatsby’s Action As presented in the novel, Jay Gatsby was trying to win Daisy back because he strongly believed she was the love of his life. It was five years after Jay had lost the love of his life. At the same time, Daisy was jealous because her husband was engaged in an extramarital affair. As a result, Daisy decided to kill Tom’s mistress in an accident. The accident took place in the presence of Jay Gatsby. Because of love and desire to reunite with his lover, Jay found himself in a dilemma. It was because of the dilemma that he decided to do anything in order to retain his lover. As described in the novel, it is evident that Daisy would be in trouble after Tom realized that she had killed Myrtle. As well, it appeared that Gatsby was not sure of the possible outcome after the accident. With such kind of uncertainty and dilemma, Jay decided to take the blame on behalf of her lover. In response to the dilemma, Jay Gatsby was the prime suspect, something that led to his death. Myrtle’s husband killed Jay and eventually shot himself.Advertising Looking for assessment on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although the author of the novel did not clearly explain why Jay Gatsby acted in this manner, it would be agreeable that the character was trying to save his lover. He was on the path towards achieving his dreams. At that moment, Jay Gatsby was sure of a reunion with his lover and nothing was going to take her away from him. His financial position and wealth gave Jay the courage to take the blame. He was optimistic that he would deal with the issue later. However, Jay’s attempt to reunite with Daisy is what led to his death. Assessing the Action Using Mill’s Utilitarianism John Stuart Mill is one of the ethical theorists who presented the theory of utilitarianism. According to Mill, utilitarianism is what governs human behaviors, actions, and ideas. Utilitarianism supports â€Å"actions that will result in happiness†. As well, an action is â€Å"wrong† if it results in the opposite of happiness to the people. Mill’s utilitarian theory can be used to assess the ethically of Jay Gatsby’s action as presented in the discussion above. This theory is applicable here because it helps ascertain whether the action undertaken by Gatsby is ethical or not. There are various steps involved in applying the theory to a situation or action. As described by Mill, the basic idea behind the theory is the â€Å"happiness principle†. That being the case, an action is â€Å"right† only it results in happiness. Alternatively, actions are wrong if they do not promote human happiness. The theory defines â€Å"happiness as the absence of suffering or pain†. On the other hand, the theory defines unhappin ess as â€Å"the presence of suffering†. With such considerations, it can be easier to establish whether an action is permissible or not. The use of the above steps helps individuals differentiate between a good and a bad action. An action is â€Å"good† if it results in happiness. It can be easier to use Mill’s utilitarian theory to assess Jay Gatsby’s action and conclude whether it is unethical or ethical. From the book by Scott Fitzgerald, it is notable that Jay Gatsby decided to take Daisy as his own despite the fact that she was already in marriage. According to utilitarianism, Jay’s action does not result in happiness. Daisy’s husband and other people in the society become bitter after the event.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on The Ethicality of an Action Jay Gatsby specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As well, Gatsby decides to take the blame for Myrtle’s death. According to the utility theory, an action is good only if it promotes happiness. However, Gatsby’s decision to do so does not produce any happiness at the very end. Instead, George Wilson kills Gatsby after guessing that he was the one having an extramarital affair with his wife. After killing Gatsby, George shoots himself thus â€Å"causing pain†. From this novel, it is evident that such deaths would not have occurred if Gatsby did not try to reunite with Daisy or take the blame for Myrtle’s death. From the above discussion and application of Mill’s utilitarian theory, it is agreeable that Jay Gatsby’s action as presented in the novel is unethical. This assessment on The Ethicality of an Action Jay Gatsby was written and submitted by user Giselle Daniels to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Kants Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World

Over the years various issues have developed in the world. Things that were once clear cut as either morally wrong or right, have become very contentious. Various philosophers have studied and proposed different ideas on the subject of morality. Kant’s moral philosophy holds that the final result of an action has no value; the value of an action lies on the motivation behind it (Kant, 3). Kant argued that there exists an unconditional and absolute requirement that all other moral obligations are based on.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In order for one to uphold the highest moral law, his or her actions must conform to this requirement which he termed as the categorical imperative (Kant, 15). Kant’s ideology can however be seen as too simplistic when dealing with the modern society characterized by actions tha t cannot be easily categorized as morally right or wrong; those that may be termed as morally ambiguous. Kant, a German philosopher, undertook a study to find the ultimate principle on morality. Kant identified three maxims that would enable one to identify morally right or wrong actions. The first maxim states that every person should act in such a manner that the action would be the right action for other people in similar situations (Kant, 14). The second maxim states that an action is morally right if it treat others not as a means to an end but as an end in themselves (Kant, 29). The final maxim is a summation of the first two and it states that a moral action occurs when one acts as if his actions were setting a universal law that could be used by others under the same circumstances (Kant, 24). When Kant was developing his moral philosophy, the society was mainly religious and culture played a big part in shaping how people acted. The contemporary society is however less gover ned by religion or culture and science (logic) plays a big part on how people make decisions or act. Actions that were previously termed morally inappropriate are under fire with people trying to understand what makes an action morally right or wrong. Kant’s categorical imperative has three formulations that govern all moral action. These formulations can be summed up by the universality principle that states that all actions should be carried out in such a manner that they become universal laws without contradiction (Kant, 30). This formulation in itself is too simplistic for the complicated modern society that we live in. One contentious issue in modern societies has been that of abortion. According to the requirements of categorical imperative, it would be morally wrong for a woman to carry out an abortion.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kant argues that the moral value of an action is not based on its results but on its underlying principle and such action should be such that it can be universally adopted. As such, abortion which is mainly carried out to preserve the happiness, well-being or priorities of the woman, goes against this formulation (Denis, 548). Kant also puts forward the principles of good will and duty. According to Kant, good will is that will that is derived from moral laws and has no qualifications (Kant, 5). Kant argued that the expected results of an action are morally neutral and not important when considering morality. He added that good will is the only basis that the value of morality can be recognized. Kant also argued that duty determines whether an action is moral right or wrong. Kant argued that since the moral value of an action does not derive from the expected results, it must then be derived from the principle under which the action is carried out regardless of personal desires or surrounding circumstances (Kant, 7). It is the basic human duty to populate the world and ensure the continuity of life. Abortion goes against this duty thus it must be considered morally wrong. Modern medicine has enabled deformities and complications to be identified before birth. Kant’s argument is ineffective as it would be cruel to give birth to a child who will suffer constantly or to put the life of the mother in jeopardy due to pregnancy complications (Denis, 560). Kant’s morality principle is too simplistic and fails to take into account circumstances that have developed in the contemporary societies. Decision making in modern societies is carried out with regards to a multi-cultured society as a whole. Simplistic ground rules cannot effectively cover all situations under which an action may be undertaken. Abortion is an action involving two parties, the agent and the fetus. The fetus cannot be deemed a rational being hence Kant may propose that laws of morality do not apply to it. However, the fetus is a part of the continuity of life and according to instinct (nature), child birth is a duty common to all. It is thus morally wrong to carry out an abortion as it goes against this duty. Kant’s philosophy cannot cover all aspects found in many contentious issues of the modern world hence it has no place in contemporary society. Works Cited Denis, Lara. â€Å"Abortion and Kant’s Formula of Universal Law.† Canadian Journal of  Philosophy 37.4 (2007): 547-580Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. Trans. Jonathan Bennet. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995 This essay on Kant’s Moral Philosophy in the Contemporary World was written and submitted by user Eloise Butler to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Beowulf, an Epic Hero essays

Beowulf, an Epic Hero essays An epic hero is defined as a larger than life hero who embodies the values of a particular society. Commonly epic heroes have superior strength, have strong love for their people, are fearless of death, and are very ethical people. The epic poem Beowulf describes the most heroic man of the Anglo-Saxon times. The hero, Beowulf, is a seemingly invincible person with all the extraordinary traits required of an epic hero. Beowulf is a perfect example of an epic hero who is a representative of his time because of his super-human strength, his strong love for the people, his fearless of death, and his ethical personality including his strong moral characteristics common of his time. It is obvious that Beowulf has super-human strength because he kills Grendel with his own bare hands. Grendel had been terrorizing the Danes for twelve years and none of them could defeat Grenadel with weapons! During the battle with Grendel, Grendel notices Beowulfs extraordinary strength: [Grendel] Knew at once that nowhere on earth Had he met a man whose hands were harder; His mind was flooded with fear- but nothing could take his talons and himself from that tight Hard grip (p. 33, 433-437). To proclaim his victory and triumph over evil, Beowulf hangs an arm of Grendels, which he savagely ripped from the beast, from the ceiling. Later, Beowulf goes on to kill the Grendels mother, who is even more viscous than Grenadel. In the battle with Grendels mother there is yet another example of Beowulfs super-human strength when Beowulf lifts a huge, massive sword and kills Grendels mother with it. It is said that the sword was so massive that no ordinary man would have the strength to lift it. Beowulf also boasts of his strength many times throughout the poem. For example, in his argument with Unferth, But the truth is simple: No man swims in sea as I can, no strength is a match for mine (p. 28,...

Malthus vs Marx Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Malthus vs Marx - Essay Example Marx on his part argues that crises can also occur. However, they identify problem originating in different ways. Therefore, the essay will explain how each accounts for downturns in capitalist economies. It will go ahead and argue which explanation is more persuasive. To begin with, it is important to understand capitalism and its working in the society. Capitalism refers to an economic system characterized by corporate or private ownership of capital goods through investments that are determined through private decision, and through production, distribution, and the prices of goods that are determined majorly by competition in a free market (Frank 5). Elements of capitalism include production of goods or services for profit, means of production is owned privately, wage labor, and competitive markets. This system became dominant after feudalism diminished in the Western world. It is worth noting that the designation of this system is applied to different historical cases that vary i n geography, culture, time, and politics (Frank 9). Capitalism has many variants that bear the aforementioned characteristics though the degree of application of these characteristics may differ a little bit. The main forms of capitalism include state capitalism, free- market capitalism, mercantilism, corporate capitalism, and social market capitalism. Of particular interest to this essay is the production aspect of capitalism, especially as it has been the focus of Malthus and Marx’s arguments. Thomas Malthus is widely known for his theories on population. However, his contributions to political economy theories were equally significant. Malthus argument focused on production and its ability to meet the economic demand of a society. In developing his theories about political economy, he defended Sismondi’s views on general glut. Malthus argues about general glut, which means overproduction of goods, in his Surplus Theory (Hollander 12). According to him, the general g lut question may be general as well as particular, permanent or temporary as well. He argues that the concept of the general glut in a given society has a potential of presenting a problem (Buccholz 60). Malthus glut theory was based on insufficient aggregate demand that was analyzed through the existing patterns of expenditure among the three socio- economic classes. He assumed that capitalists would spend their income on basic needs since they will not have time and capacity to utilize all the goods and services at their disposal thus spending most of their income on the capital accumulation (Hollander 26). The property owners on their part would spend most of their income on personal services and luxury items such as culture and arts. Besides, he assumed that laborers would spend most their incomes if not all on basic needs necessary to maintain their basic subsistence level and would not have remaining money for savings. Malthus argued that the glut problem was because of high r ate of savings among the capitalists making the capital accumulation rate to be unsustainable. Therefore, demand for labor would increase in order to keep up with the capital growth. This may result to temporal labor shortage causing rise of wages or some newly invested capital may fail to find matching labor hence becoming idle (Buccholz 62). Eventually, this scenario would lead to an economic crisis. To him, overproduction of

Human body partsTrafficing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human body partsTrafficing - Research Paper Example number and the varieties of transplantation options available is the emergent market for human body parts (Harrison, pg21).Legally, body parts used in transplantation surgeries are normally procured form cadavers or brain dead people, however, the demand for organs has far exceeded the availability of organs which leaves thousands of patients in the waiting list. In the U.S alone, 95,000 people were in the waiting list in 2006, while 6,500 people died owing to non-availability of vital organs for transplantation ( Abouna, p34). 82,000 patients of the people in the waiting list were comprised of people waiting for kidneys alone (Rupert, p67). According to the WHO, in 2010 there were approximately 107,000 donated organs worldwide— both legal and illegal and a good percentage of these transplanted organs comprises of 20,000 kidneys which are trafficked (Heymann, 2012). These problems of demands, non-availability and inadequate management of transplantation organs have led to black marketing and trafficking of organs especially in the developing and the underdeveloped countries. The monetary value added to human body parts and vital organs led to their commoditization. People from developing and under developed countries engage in the trade of human body parts because of their financial conditions and the high pay that this kind of trafficking fetches for them.   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The most common source of organs was impoverished people in India, Pakistan, Egypt, and the Philippines, deceased organ donors in Colombia, and executed prisoners in China† ( Danovitch, p1306).. One of the major countries from where organs are procured is India, an Asian country. Hundreds of impoverished people in India either sell or help traffic organs to make a living. Often doctors and nursing homes are involved in such scandals owing to the high price that organs such as kidneys and liver fetch especially from foreigners who are a part of â€Å"transplant tourism†. â€Å"The Voluntary Health

Democracy in the United States and Great Britain Essay Example for Free

Democracy in the United States and Great Britain Essay Although the need for government to have leadership that provides direction is universal among states, the form that the government leadership assumes varies. Government structure varies significantly between the United States and Great Britain, despite that each is a democracy and share a common history. In fact, the common history of the United States and Great Britain suggests reasons to explain the broad differences between the governments of each respective state. In the wake of the American Revolution, the people of the United States rejected the forms and institutions, most notably a monarchy and Parliament, of British government as well as British sovereignty. Possessing a democratic presidential government, the United States has two separately elected agencies of government. The executive and legislative branches of the United States, the President and Congress, respectively, both derive their power from the people, whereas in Great Britain only the legislative branch, Parliament, derives its power from the people, as the executive is elected by Members of Parliament, thus effectively combining both branches within a single institution. The Parliamentary system in Great Britain and the Presidential system in the United States both have histories marked by an absence of abject failure, yet neither system can be considered truly perfect. Consequently, the analyst cannot conclude that either system is better; rather, he must recognize that there are merits and faults in both systems. The Parliamentary system tends to legislate efficiently, whereas a presidential system tends toward gridlock. However, the presidential system grants both elected representatives and citizens greater influence in government. The Parliamentary system tends to favor Prime Ministers who have much experience, whereas the Presidential system favors Presidents who are responsive to the general will of the people. Also every week the British prime minister appears before the House of Commons and must answer questions put to him or her by the members of Parliament. Sometimes it is suggested that the president of the United States should be subject to similar questioning by members of Congress, as a way of encouraging closer interaction between president and Congress. If the president did so, however, it would be his or her choice; the president is elected directly by the people and is answerable to the voters rather than the legislature. Whereas the prime minister has no choice because he or she is a member of Parliament and is directly accountable to that body. Herein lies a very basic difference between the presidential system of government as it exists in the United States and the parliamentary system that has evolved in Great Britain. Another point is that the framers of the U.S. Constitution adopted the principle first enunciated by the Baron de Montesquieu of separation of powers. They carefully spelled out the independence of the three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. At the same time, however, they provided for a system in which some powers should be shared: Congress may pass laws, but the president can veto them; the president nominates certain public officials, but Congress must approve the appointments; and laws passed by Congress as well as executive actions are subject to judicial review. Thus the separation of powers is offset by what are sometimes called checks and balances. In a parliamentary system, by contrast, the legislature holds supreme power. The prime minister is chosen by members of the legislature (Parliament) from among their own number and in practice is the leader of the majority party in the legislature. The cabinet members must also belong to the legislature, where they are subject to the same kind of questioning that the prime minister experiences. If the prime minister loses the support of the majority in the legislature on a significant vote, he or she must resign, and elections are called immediately. Thus, whereas in the United States, elections are held at fixed intervals, in Britain and other parliamentary countries, they may occur at any time, the only restriction being (in  Britain) that they must be held at least once every five years. In Conclusion, the governments of Great Britain and the United States of America have many differences, they are, at the core, provides leadership and direction to their nation.

Donald Olding Hebb: Biography and Theories

Donald Olding Hebb: Biography and Theories Obispo, Stacey L. In Chester, Nova Scotia on July 22, 1904 Donald Olding Hebb was born. Both of his parents were medical doctors (Brown Milner, 2003). Donald’s mother home schooled him till the age of 8 because she was heavily influenced by the ideas of Maria Montessori, an Italian physician who believed that education of the senses should come before development of the intellect (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). At the age of 10 Donald’s academic performance was so spectacular it left his teachers amazed and as a result he was promoted to grade 7(University of Alberta Canada, 2008) . Home schooling has been said to influence Donald’s attitude towards authority and policy (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). In his high school years he avoided all adult pressure and held a low estimate of the value of academic achievement and as a result failed the 11th grade (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald managed to graduate and enrolled at Dalhousie University where he receiv ed his B.A. in 1925 (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald carried distain for structured schooling and had a worse than mediocre record at Dalhousie (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). In 1925 he began teaching at an elementary school at his old schoolhouse in Nova Scotia for a year (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald then began working as a laborer and read Sigmund Freud (Brown Milner, 2003). After reading Freud in 1928 Hebb thought that there was area for opportunity in the field of Psychology and sought to go back to school and enrolled at McGill University (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). Donald became bedridden for a year with a tubercular hip and during this time he wrote his M.A. thesis (Brown Milner, 2003). Donald tried to show in his master’s thesis that skeletal reflexes are a product of cellular learning (Brown Milner, 2003). He later said his thesis was nonsense (Brown Milner, 2003). In 1934 Donald made the decision to study physiological psychology, and worked with Lashley in Chicago for three academic terms (Brown Milner, 2003). In 1935 he moved to Harvard with Lashley(Brown Milner, 2003).While at Harvard the idea of neural networking began to take shape in Donald’s mind(Brown Milner, 2003).He later used the ideas of neural networking for his PhD thesis which he submitted in 1936(Brown Milner, 2003). These ideas led him to pivotal ideas that made him famous with the creation of a new branch of psychology (Brown Milner, 2003). Dr. Hebb would later conduct research on the brains of humans regarding intelligence and research on primates (Brown Milner, 2003). Hebb’s research lead him to write the book The Organization of Behavior (University of Alberta Canada, 2008). His book introduced his theory of neural networking (Brown Milner, 2003). In his book Hebb suggests’ that two neurons firing together will strengthen the connection and make it easier for the two neurons to illicit a response from the third. In sum The neurons that fire together, wire together(Brown Milner, 2003).The implications of his findings and theory forever changed physiology and psychology. Hebb’s theory has crossed over from psychology to computer science and engineering (Brown Milner, 2003). Dr. Donald Hebb received acclaim for his theory and findings and was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize and served on many boards such as the CPA, APA, NRC (Brown Milner, 2003). Hebb died on August 20, 1985 from what was thought to be a routine surgery on his hip (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Five key findings Hebb discovered transformed the field of learning psychology. The five findings include; cell assembly, phase sequence, arousal theory, short and long term memory, and the Hebb rule. Hebb’s theories and research are now applied in engineering, robotics, and computer science as well as neurophysiology, neuroscience and psychology (Klien, 1999). The beginning to Hebb’s discoveries began in 1929 when Han’s Berger’s announced that the brain exhibits continuous electrical activity( (Brown, Milner,2003).With this information Hebb sought explanations as to how learning and physiology interact with one other (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb found that at the time, explanations as to how learning was developed were by simplistic equations such as the S-R relationship in organisms which to him was too simplistic (Brown, Milner, 2003). He believed that the inborn activity of the path must be taken account for (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb thought that psychologist could no longer pretend that the biology of the organism was irrelevant (Brown, Milner, 2003).Behavior as Hebb saw was affected by variables such as attention and psychological theory which could no longer be ignored (Brown, Milner, 2003). Hebb believed that the learning was related to neural activity and current data of the time could not explain the ph enomena. Hebb concluded that Classical Behaviorism could not account for electro-encephalic data which clearly demonstrated the inadequacy of the physiological data on which Classical Behaviorism was based on (Brown, Milner, 2003). As a result Hebb developed neural theory with the current neurophysiological data (Brown, Milner, 2003). One of the key findings of Hebb was the cell assembly. Understanding how environmental objects we experience impact the brain led Hebb to the discovery of the cell assembly. The cell assembly is a pattern of neural activity that is caused when an environmental object or event is experienced (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Furthermore when the cell assembly is well developed, the person is able to think of the entire event following the stimulation of the assembly, even if the object itself or the event is physically absent (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). When a cell assembly fires we experience the event or thought the assembly represents (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Thought or ideas according to Hebb, is the cell assemblies neurological basis (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). The next influential finding of Hebb was the phase sequence. The phase sequence is a sequence of temporarily related cell assemblies. A phase sequence occurs when cell assemblies consistently follow one another in time form(Olsen Hergenhahn,2013). Once a phase sequence is developed a temporarily integrated series of assembly activities amount to one current stream of thought (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). When a single cell assembly or combination of assemblies in a phase sequence is fired, the entire phase sequence tends to fire (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). As a result of the phase sequence firing, one experiences a stream of thought which is a series of ideas arranged in a type of logical order (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Another important finding of Hebb was his development of arousal theory which explained reinforcement. Hebb discovered that there are times in which too much noise or commotion may allow one to not think clearly while at other times, one may need to shake themselves awake to keep up with optimal performance (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb discovered that these reactions suggests that there is a level of stimulation in which must not be too high or low to produce optimal cognitive functioning (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). This relationship led to Hebb’s development of arousal theory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Arousal theory according to Hebb is the contention in which brain wave activity ranges from very fast to very slow with a rate in between that allows for the optimal performance of certain tasks. (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb contributed towards developing the differentiation between long term and short term memory .Hebb completely developed the distinction between different kinds of memory and theorized on the underlying physiological mechanisms (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb believed in two forms of memory which consists of long term and short term memory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Short term memory according to Hebb, lasts less than a minute and is related with the reverberating of neural activity created by an environmental event (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). However if an experience is repeated enough it is stored as long term memory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). The process in which short term memory is converted into long term memory is defined as consolidation (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Another major contribution of Hebb lays in a learning rule. The Hebb rule is a learning rule used in computer simulation which refers to Hebb’s idea that when two cells are active together, the connection between them is strengthened (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013), The Hebb rule is a mathematical statement which tries to capture Hebb’s contention that the connection between two cells that are active simultaneously will be strengthened or made more efficient (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). The similarities of Hebb and Pavlov’s theories is that Hebb’s ideas concerning formation of associations between areas that are contiguously active are not that much different from Pavlov’s (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Comparatively, Hebb like Pavlov was not the first researcher to use his ideas about brain function to theorize about higher cognitive processes (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Furthermore, it could be said the Hebb may have changed the level of analysis from larger areas of the brain to smaller numbers of neurons but maintained the basic principles of Pavlov (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). The differences between Hebb and Pavlov’s theory is that Hebb along with Lashley discovered that Pavlovian theory had restrictions specifically in the belief that the brain was a complex switchboard. (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). For instance, the switchboard view of the brain assumed that sensory events stimulate specific areas of the brain and learning causes a change in neural circuitry so that sensory events come to stimulate areas other than those they originally stimulated (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Conversely Hebb and Lashley discovered through their research on rats that the location of destroyed portions of the brain was not as important as the amount of destruction (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Lashley further proved through the principle of mass action that the disruption of learning and retention goes up when the amount of cortical destruction goes up regardless of the location of the destruction (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Furthermore, when the cortex functions as a whol e during learning, and suppose one part of the cortex is destroyed then the other parts of the cortex take over the destroyed portion’s function (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb and Lashley’s discoveries show that the brain did not act like a simple switchboard. Hebb impacted the field of learning through his discoveries on the effects of environment and neural development and arousal theory (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Hebb believed there were two kinds of learning (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). First is the gradual buildup of cell assemblies and phase sequences during infancy and early childhood (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Both cell assemblies and phase sequences in early childhood develop in early learning in which the objects and events in the environment have neurological representations (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). As a result of this neural development, children can think of an object or event, series of objects and events, when it is not physically present (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). According to Hebb the second kind of learning, occurs when cell assemblies and phase sequences are developed in early life, then subsequent learning involves their rearrangement (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). One way of putting it, once the building blocks have been e stablished (first kind of learning) they can then be rearranged in numerous configurations (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Another contribution to the field of learning was Hebb’s arousal theory. Arousal theory shows that for any given student or task efficient learning occurs when there is an optimal level of arousal (Olsen Hergenhahn, 2013). Together environment and neural development along with arousal theory have contributed towards the field of education. References Brown, R. E., Milner, P. M. (2003). The legacy of Donald O. Hebb: More than the Hebb synapse. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience, 4, 1019. Klien, R. M. (1999). The Hebb legacy. Canadian Journal for Experimental Psychology, 53(1), 3. Olsen, M. H., Hergenhahn, B. R. (2013) Introduction to theories of learning. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. 9780205871865 University of Alberta Canada. (2008). Dr. Donald Hebb. Retrieved from http://www.psych.ualberta.ca/GCPWS/index.html Export Strategy: Advantages and Disadvantages Export Strategy: Advantages and Disadvantages 1.0. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of this report was to analyze the different strategies for exporting that are available to an organization internationalizing for the first time. Specific objectives were to identify the drawbacks and benefits of an export strategy. The report recommends an organization taking up exporting as a means of internationalization but also emphasizes that for exporting to be fully successful, the organization must approach it in a systematic way so that it may derive the full benefits associated with exporting. 2.0. TERMS OF REFERENCE My name is Amina J M Matongo,I am a student studying for my Bachelor of Arts in Business Studies at The Zambia Centre For accountancy Studies through the Greenwich University. The content in this report is based on examining different export strategies available to a firm wishing to internationalize for the first time and the advantages and disadvantages of an export strategy. 3.0. METHODOLOGY The information contained and gathered in this report has been collected from international business literature, texts, past knowledge and the World Wide Web. 4.0. INTRODUCTION A number of market entry strategies are available for a firm wishing to internationalize into foreign markets. Entry strategies include Exporting, Licensing, Franchising, strategic alliances, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries. But because exporting entails limited risk, expense and knowledge of foreign markets and transactions, most organizations prefer exporting as their primary foreign market strategy. Exporting is a strategy of producing products or services in one country (often the producers home country), and then selling and distributing to customers in another country. The organization that is exporting retains its manufacturing activities in the home market but conducts marketing, distribution and customer service activities in the export market, the firm may conduct the latter activities itself or contract with an independent distributor or agent to have them performed (Cavusgil, Knight ,Riesenberger). Organizations venturing abroad for the first time, use exporting as an entry strategy, but beyond primary entry, all types of firms, large and small use exporting regardless of their stage of internationalization. Large companies such as Boeing and Toyota have used exporting in conjunction with other entry strategies. Compared to more complex strategies such as foreign direct investment (FDI), the exporter can both enter and withdraw from the markets fairly easily, with minimal risk and expense. Exporting may be employed repeatedly during the firms internationalization process.(reference 1) 4.1. The reasons why organizations internationalize include To seek opportunities for growth through market diversification. Substantial market potential exists outside the home country and this is how firms both large and small generate more than half their sales from markets abroad. Many foreign markets may be underserved for example high emerging markets, thus they have high demand and less intense competitive pressures which entails higher margins and profits for the firm. Firms are better able to serve key customers who have relocated abroad. For example when Toyota opened its first factory in the UK, many Japanese auto parts suppliers followed, establishing their own operations there. To gain access to lower-cost or better-value factors of production .Internationalization enables the firm to access capital, technology, managerial talent, labor and land at lower costs, higher quality, or better overall value at locations worldwide. Another driver for internationalization is that the firm is able to develop economies of scale in sourcing, production, marketing and RD .Also the firm will be closer to supply sources, benefit from global sourcing advantages, and gain new ideas about products, services and business methods. Unique foreign environments expose firms to new ideas for products, processes and business methods. (reference 2). 5.0. DISCUSSION According to Cavusgil, Knight and Riesenberger, the more experienced managers will use a systematic approach to exporting to improve the firms prospects for successful exporting. This approach should be as follows: 5.1.1. Step one, assess global market opportunity Management assesses the various global market opportunities available to the organization. The organizations readiness to internationalize and choose the most attractive export markets, identifies qualified distributors and other foreign business partners then estimates industry market potential and company sales potential. 5.1.2. Step two, organize for Exporting The second step is for managers to address the questions of what types of financial, managerial and productive resources should be committed to exporting? And to what extent should the firm rely on domestic and foreign intermediaries to carry out exporting? Options open to the organization are either to use indirect exporting which is exporting through intermediaries in the home market or direct exporting which is through intermediaries in the foreign market. 5.1.3. Step three, Acquire needed skills and competences Exporting is often complex and as a result requires specialized skills and competencies. Meaning the organization will need to acquire these skills and competencies, train staff and engage appropriate facilitating firms such as freight forwarders ,bankers etc. 5.1.4. Step four, Implement the export strategy In this final stage, management formulates elements of the organizations export strategy. This may involve product adaptation to modify a product to make it fit the needs and tastes of buyers. In export markets with many competitors, the exporter needs to adapt its products/services in order to gain a competitive advantage. For example when Microsoft markets computer software in Germany, it must ensure the software is written in German. Marketing communications adaptation refers to modifying advertising, selling, public relations and promotional activities to suit individual markets. Marketing activities are adapted depending on the nature of the target market, nature of the product/service, the firms position relative to competitors and managements specific goals and objectives. Price competitiveness refers to efforts to keep foreign pricing in line with that of competitors, the exporter may need to charge competitive prices .In the case of small and medium enterprises (SMEs), they may lack the resources to compete head to head on pricing with larger rivals. Such companies do not compete based on price but by emphasizing the non-price benefits of their products/services such as quality, reliability and brand leadership. Distribution strategy often hinges on developing strong and mutually beneficial relations with foreign intermediaries. Companies provide ongoing support to distributors and subsidiaries in the form of sales force, training, technical assistance, marketing know how, promotional support and pricing incentives. In markets with numerous competitors, the exporter may need to boost the capabilities of distributors. SOURCE: Adapted from Cavusgil et al,strategy, management and the new realities, pearson, 2008.pg 391. 6.0. STRATEGIES FOR EXPORTING MAY BE LOOSELY GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES 6.1. Direct Exporting Direct exporting involves direct marketing and selling to the client that is contracting with intermediaries located in the foreign market to perform export functions; intermediaries include foreign based sales agents and distributors. These intermediaries or agents perform downstream value chain activities in the target market. If a firm has a reasonably accessible market, direct exporting of products and services may be a viable option .But where the firm faces less familiar markets with different legal and regulatory environments, business practices, customs and or preferences, direct exporting may not be an attractive option. A local partner for example may be better able to manage these complexities and serve the organizations potential clients better. 6.1.1. Advantages of direct exporting The exporting company will be able to establish a direct contact with a foreign trading partner, and not only operates through its own foreign trade companies abroad but also has the best opportunity for direct participation in foreign transactions. Target management and control of the sales become possible which is unrealistic in the case of indirect exports. The strategy offers potential for higher profits because of more direct contact. Direct exports may also enable the producer to have a closer relationship with foreign buyers and the marketplace. Direct exporting is applicable to a wider range of goods and services. 6.1.2. Disadvantages of direct exporting Direct exports are affected by other conditions. For example, the deterioration of exchange rates, if the rate of domestic currencies of third countries increases on the markets where the firm exports, it may cause the company to become relatively uncompetitive in overseas markets. Direct exporting may be inappropriate for goods with a short work life and are unlikely to be exported, goods such as those which may have high transport costs or goods that require complex after -sales service which cannot be granted by resellers. Direct exporting may require the producer to acquire new capabilities like marketing skills and financial resources in order to be able to contract with clients or business partners. 6.2. Indirect Exporting This method of exporting is mainly used by producers in the transportation, Automobile and Equipment manufacturing industries. For example, the Toyota Motor corporation. Indirect exporting entails contracting with intermediaries in the producers home country to perform export functions; these are intermediaries such as an export management company (EMC) or a Trading company. These intermediaries are responsible for finding foreign buyers in the target market, shipping products and receiving payment. The types of intermediaries Domestic based exporting merchants who sell the products abroad and domestic based export agents who sell on behalf of the exporter but do not take title of the products; agents are usually paid by commission. The producer/ exporter should exercise caution when selecting an agent or distributor for indirect exporting. 6.2.1. The advantages of indirect exporting The principal advantage of indirect exporting for most organizations is that it provides a way to penetrate the foreign markets without the complexities and risks of more direct exporting. The international organization can start exporting with no incremental investment in fixed capital, low startup costs and few risks, but with prospects for incremental sales. The exporter will have less complexity in dealing with when selling products in foreign markets, complexities which range from clashing cultures to volatile exchange rates. The exporter will not have to worry about managing product distribution in a foreign country as this is done by an export partner. The market entry barriers tend to be less in this form of exporting. In indirect exporting, the legal relationships exist between the organizations supplier (intermediary) and its immediate client buyer. Questions of jurisdiction in international lawsuits become less of an issue for the indirect exporter. The aspect of managing ongoing end user relationships is eliminated for the producer. Compared with other forms of access to foreign markets and their development, indirect exports require scarce resources. This will be an advantage for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) wishing to internationalize. The producer will have more time to focus on the core competencies of their business operations. Indirect exporting does not require a lot of organizational effort or commitment of staff workers, the firm only employs a small number of employees as the main work is carried out by foreign trade partners. In the event that this export strategy does not lead to achievement of goals, the exporter can easily withdraw from the market. 6.2.2. The disadvantages of indirect exporting The main disadvantage of indirect exports is that not all brokers are using the optimum market potential and opportunities for marketing, thus mistakes and miscalculations in their actions affect the income of producers of export goods. Indirect exporting may lead to diminishing returns in the long run as trading partners try to get maximum profit from their service as mediators. While the exporter using intermediaries to export can save a lot of money in the short and medium term, this type of supplier has little or no control over the business activities in international markets. By using an intermediary, the indirect exporter may lose out on brand recognition and loyalty in international markets, thus leaving this opportunity and domain to larger firms. Lastly the producer using indirect exports may lack recognition from the end users of the product or service, who are much more familiar with the end product. 6.2.3 The third option open to exporters is to export by establishing strategic partnerships with other organizations or individuals that have complementary skills or capabilities. The partner may often provide the insight, contacts and experience that fill the gap in the organizations export readiness. The advantage is that an alliance with a company selling a complementary product or service can provide the producer with more effective market access, resulting in more foreign sales in less time. A disadvantage may be that the two partners will not achieve synergistic benefits causing a failure in organizations export ventures. It should be noted though that many organizations use both approaches for different foreign markets. Key issues for deciding whether to use direct or indirect exporting are (1) the level of resources in terms of time, capital and managerial expertise that management is willing to commit to international expansion and individual markets;(2) the strategic importance of the foreign market; (3) the nature of the firms products, including the need for after sales support and (4) the availability of capable foreign intermediaries in the target market.(reference 3). 7.0. AN EXPORT STRATEGY As mentioned earlier ,exporting is the strategy of producing in the home country and then selling to buyers in foreign markets or abroad .Organizations that use exporting as a strategy include 3M (the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co.) which makes tape, sand paper and medical products amongst other products. 3M is a major exporter with revenues of over $2billion in exports. Another export success story is FCX (based in west Virginia) systems which makes power converters for the aerospace industry ,this organization generates over half of its $20million in annual sales from exports to more than 50countries(reference 4),a third example would be the Toyota Motor Corporation. The advantages and disadvantages of exporting to the above named organizations are: 7.1. Advantages Organizations can increase sales volume, improve market share and generate profit margins that are often more favorable than in the domestic market. The exporter is able to diversify the customer base, reducing dependence on home markets. For example Toyota is in different regions thus they have a diverse customer base. Economies of scale will increase and therefore reduce the per unit cost of manufacturing. Exporting allows the exporter to minimize risk and maximize flexibility that is compared to other forms of internationalization. If situations necessitate, the firm can quickly withdraw from an export market. As compared to other forms of entry, exporting is a low risk, low cost strategy as it does not require the exporter to establish a physical presence there. Organizations can test potential markets before committing greater resources. The exporter is able to stabilize fluctuations in sales associated with economic cycles or seasonality of demand. For example, a firm can offset declining demand at home due to an economic recession by refocusing efforts toward those countries that are experiencing more robust economic growth. Also the exporter is able to leverage the capabilities and skills of foreign distributors and other business partners located abroad. Lastly the exporting organization is able to develop meaningful foreign relationships abroad. 7.2. Disadvantages Compared to foreign direct investment, the exporter has fewer opportunities to acquire and learn knowledge about customers, competitors and the marketplace. Meaning that it may fail to perceive opportunities and threats. An export strategy will require the organization to acquire new capabilities and dedicate organizational resources to properly conduct export transactions .Firms that are serious about exporting must hire staff with competency in international transactions and foreign languages. Exporting is much more sensitive to tariff and other trade barriers and fluctuations in exchange rates. Many of the pitfalls associated with exporting can be avoided if a company hires an experienced export management company, or export consultant, and if it adopts the appropriate export strategy. (Hill, 2009). 8.0. CONCLUSIONS Firms venturing abroad for the first time usually use exporting as their mode of entry. Exporting is also the entry strategy most favored by small and medium-sized enterprises. But beyond initial entry all types of firms, large and small use exporting regardless of their stage of internationalization. Exporting is the entry strategy responsible for the massive inflows and outflows that constitute global trade. Exporting typically generates substantial foreign exchange earnings for nations. For example in the United States, SMEs account for a great proportion of all U.S exporters. From 1992 to 2004, they represented nearly 100 percent of the growth in the U.S exporter population, swelling from about 108,000 firms in 1992 to over 225,000 firms by 2004. SMEs were responsible for nearly a third of merchandise exports from the United States in 2006.(Cavusgil, Knight, Riesenberger). 9.0. RECOMMENDATIONS Since it is possible to use both direct and indirect exporting simultaneously in different target markets, my recommendation would be to apply either direct or indirect exporting depending on the target markets and the conditions that prevail in those markets. Both methods of exporting can be used successfully.

Life Frankenstein Essay

Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein in 1818. Frankenstein was a gothic novel and the book was based on Mary Shelly’s life as she had a lot of death in her life as her mother died giving birth to her she and she lost her only baby. Mary Shelly want to bring her back as that is what Frankenstein did when his mother die giving birth to his brother. There was a lot of increase of science at time which drove Frankenstein to make the monster. Chapter 5 is the most important chapter as it is when he brings the monster to life but when the monster comes to life Frankenstein would not take responsibility and would not go back to his house â€Å"I did not dare return to the apartment which I inhabited.† It shows that man should not play god if they are not willing to take responsibility for their action which Frankenstein didn’t do. He runs out of his house â€Å"seemingly to detain me, but I escaped, and rushed down stairs.† Just because he didn’t want to take responsibility for the  Monster. This chapter shows that he is a coward as he made the monster but when he saw it he was scary to him even though he was the one who made it. It also show he is very selfish as he doesn’t think of the monster he only thinks of him self and what would happen if one of his friends sees it â€Å"I dreaded to behold this monster but I feared still more that Henry should see it† this show that he thinks more about him self then he does about the monster as he don’t want Henry to see it as it would damage his reputation. Shelley used the language to create atmosphere like at the start it is depressing as Frankenstein realises that making the monster was morally wrong â€Å"it was on a dreary night of November that I behold the accomplishment† but at the end it becomes a scared atmosphere as he doesn’t want to think of the monster â€Å"could he allude to an object on whom I dared not even think.† The time of day is night â€Å"my candle was nearly burnt out†.  The chapter talks about appearance and reality â€Å"I behold the wretch – the miserable monster whom I had created† he called the monster a wretch which means he doesn’t see him as a human and he thinks of him as a thing that he can just throw away when he feels like it and make something else just because he look different to every one else when really Frankenstein is the monster. The chapter also talks about isolation and loneliness as  During all that time Henry was my only nurse† when he isolated him self he when insane as he wanted to finish his work and not to rest, but he doesn’t ask his friends for help.  The chapter shows man should not play god as it is too much responsibility for them to take. â€Å"Dreams that had been my food and pleasant rest for so long a space were now became a hell to me† this show that mortals react to they emotions. Human’s emotions change very quickly and this shows that they should not play god if they are not willing to play it out to the end and that no human can control they emotions. Studying this chapter has showed that man should not push science too far as it can cause very dangerous things that can hurt people but if we are going to play god which means we should not be allowed to change our emotions and take responsibility for what they have made or done. It also shows that just because you love someone you are aloud to give them a new life as this is going against god.

Micro and macro market enviroment Essay

In order to correctly identify opportunities and monitor threats, the company must begin with athorough understanding of the marketing environment in which the firm operates. The marketingenvironment consists of all the actors and forces outside marketing that affect the marketingmanagement’s ability to develop and maintain successful relationships with its target customers.Though these factors and forces may vary depending on the specific company and industrialgroup, they can generally be divided into broad micro environmental and macro environmentalcomponents. For most companies, the micro environmental components are: the company,suppliers, marketing channel firms (intermediaries), customer markets, competitors, and publicswhich combine to make up the company’s value delivery system. The macro environmentalcomponents are thought to be: demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, andcultural forces. The wise marketing manager knows that he or she cannot always affectenvironmental forces. However, smart managers can take a proactive, rather than reactive,approach to the marketing environment. As marketing management collects and processes data on these environments, they must be ever vigilant in their efforts to apply what they learn to developing opportunities and dealing withthreats. Studies have shown that excellent companies not only have a keen sense of customer butan appreciation of the environmental forces swirling around them. By constantly looking at thedynamic changes that are occurring in the aforementioned environments, companies are better prepared to adapt to change, prepare long-range strategy, meet the needs of today’s andtomorrow’s customers, and compete with the intense competition present in the globalmarketplace. All firms are encouraged to adopt an environmental management perspective in thenew millennium.A company’s marketing environment consists of the actors and forces outside marketing thataffect marketing management’s ability to develop and maintain successful relationships with itstarget customers.1). Being successful means being able to adapt the marketing mix to trends and changes thisenvironment.2). Changes in the  marketing environment are often quick and unpredictable.3). The marketing environment offers both opportunities and threats.4). The company must use its marketing research and marketing intelligence systems to monitor the changing environment.5). Systematic environmental scanning helps marketers to revise and adapt marketing strategiesto meet new challenges and opportunities in the marketplace. The marketing environment ismade up of a: 1. Micro environmental2. Macro-environment 1. Micro Environmental The microenvironment consists of five components. The first is the organization’s internalenvironment—its several departments and management levels—as it affects marketingmanagement’s decision making. The second component includes the marketing channel firmsthat cooperate to create value: the suppliers and marketing intermediaries (middlemen, physicaldistribution firms, marketing-service agencies, financial intermediaries). The third componentconsists of the five types of markets in which the organization can sell: the consumer, producer,reseller, government, and international markets. The fourth component consists of thecompetitors facing the organization. The fifth component consists of all the publics that have anactual or potential interest in or impact on the organization’s ability to achieve its objectives:financial, media, government, citizen action, and local, general, and internal publics. So themicroenvironment consists of six forces close to the company that affect its ability to serve itscustomers:a. The company itself (including departments). b. Suppliers.c. Marketing channel firms (intermediaries).d. Customer markets.e. Competitors.f. Publics. 1. The Company’s Microenvironment As discussed earlier the company’s microenvironment consists of six forces that affect its abilityto serve its customers. Lets discuss these forces in detail: a. The Company  The first force is the company itself and the role it plays in the microenvironment. This could bedeemed the internal environment.1). Top management is responsible for setting the company’s mission, objectives, broadstrategies, and policies.2). Marketing managers must make decisions  within the parameters established by topmanagement.3). Marketing managers must also work closely with other company departments. Areas such asfinance, R & D, purchasing, manufacturing, and accounting all produce better results whenaligned by common objectives and goals.4). All departments must â€Å"think consumer† if the firm is to be successful. The goal is to providesuperior customer value and satisfaction. b. Suppliers Suppliers are firms and individuals that provide the resources needed by the company and itscompetitors to produce goods and services. They are an important link in the company’s overallcustomer â€Å"value delivery system.†1). One consideration is to watch supply availability (such as supply shortages).2). Another point of concern is the monitoring of price trends of key inputs. Rising supply costsmust be carefully monitored. c. Marketing Intermediaries Marketing intermediaries are firms that help the company to promote, sell, and distribute itsgoods to final buyers.1). Resellers  are distribution channel firms that help the company find customers or make salesto them.2). These include wholesalers and retailers who buy and resell merchandise.3). Resellers often perform important functions more cheaply than the company can performitself. However, seeking and working with resellers is not easy because of the power that somedemand and use. Physical distribution firms help the company to stock and move goods from their points of origin to their destinations. Examples would be warehouses (that store and protect goods beforethey move to the next destination). Marketing service agencies (such as marketing research firms, advertising agencies, mediafirms, etc.) help the company target and promote its products. Financial intermediaries  (such as banks, credit companies, insurance companies, etc.) helpfinance transactions and insure against risks. d. Customers  The company must study its customer markets closely since each market has its own specialcharacteristics. These markets normally include:1). Consumer markets  (individuals and households that buy goods and services for personalconsumption).2). Business markets  (buy goods and services for further processing or for use in their production process).3). Reseller markets  (buy goods and services in order to resell them at a profit).4). Government markets  (agencies that buy goods and services in order to produce publicservices or transfer them to those that need them).5). International markets  (buyers of all types in foreign countries) e. Competitors Every company faces a wide range of competitors. A company must secure a strategic advantageover competitors by positioning their offerings to be successful in the marketplace. No singlecompetitive strategy is best for all companies. f. Publics A public is any group that has an actual or potential interest in or impact on an organization’sability to achieve its objectives. A company should prepare a marketing plan for all of their major publics as well as their customer markets. Generally, publics can be identified as being:1). Financial publics–influence the company’s ability to obtain funds.2). Media publics–carry news, features, and editorial opinion.3). Government publics–take developments into account.4). Citizen-action publics–a company’s decisions are often questioned by consumer organizations.5). Local publics–includes neighborhood residents and community organizations.6). General publics–a company must be concerned about the general public’s attitude toward its products and services.7). Internal publics–workers, managers, volunteers, and the board of directors. 2.MACRO ENVIRONMENT The Company’s Macro environment The company and all of the other actors operate in a larger macro environment of forces thatshape opportunities and pose threats to the company. There are six major forces (outlined below)in the company’s macro environment. There are six major forces (outlined below) in thecompany’s macro environment.a. Demographic. b. Economic.c. Natural.d. Technological.e. Political.f. Cultural. a. Demographic Environment Demography is the study of human populations in terms of size, density, location, age, sex, race,occupation, and other statistics. It is of major interest to marketers because it involves people and people make up markets. Demographic trends are constantly changing. Some more interestingones are.1). The world’s population (though not all countries) rate is growing at an explosive rate that willsoon exceed food supply and ability to adequately service the population. The greatest danger isin the poorest countries where poverty contributes to the difficulties. Emerging markets such asChina are receiving increased attention from global marketers.2). The most important trend is the changing age structure of the population. The population isaging because of a slowdown in the birth rate (in this country) and life expectancy is increasing.The baby boomers following World War II have produced a huge â€Å"bulge† in our population’sage distribution. The new prime market is the middle age group (in the future it will be the senior citizen group). There are many subdivisions of this group.a). Generation X–this group lies in the shadow of the boomers and lack obvious distinguishingcharacteristics. They are a very cynical group because of all the difficulties that have surroundedand impacted their group. b). Echo boomers (baby boomlets) are the large growing kid and teen market. This group is usedto affluence on the part of their parents (as different from the Gen Xers). One distinguishingcharacteristic is their utter fluency and comfort with computer, digital, and Internet technology(sometimes called Net-Gens).c). Generational marketing is possible, however, caution must be used to avoid generationalalienation. Many in the modern family now â€Å"telecommute†Ã¢â‚¬â€œwork at home or in a remote officeand conduct their business using fax, cell phones, modem, or the Internet In general, the population is becoming better educated. The work force is be-coming more white-collar.Products such as books and education services appeal to groups following this trend. Technicalskills (such as in computers) will be a must in the future. The final demographic trend is theincreasing ethnic and racial diversity of the population. Diversity is a force that must berecognized in the next decade. However, companies must recognize that diversity goes beyond ethnic heritage. One the important markets of the future are that disabled people (a market larger any of our ethnic minority groups). b. Economic Environment The economic environment includes those factors that affect consumer purchasing power andspending patterns. Major economic trends in the United States include:1). Personal consumption (along with personal debt) has gone up (1980s) and the early 1990s brought recession that has caused adjustments both personally and corporately in this country.Today, consumers are more careful shoppers. 2).Value marketing (trying to offer the consumer greater value for their dollar) is a very seriousstrategy in the 1990s. Real income is on the rise again but is being carefully guarded by a value-conscious consumer. 3).Income distribution is still very skewed in the U. S. and all classes have not shared in prosperity. In addition, spending patterns show that food, housing, and transportation stillaccount for the majority of consumer dollars. It is also of note that distribution of income hascreated a â€Å"two-tiered market† where there are those that are affluent and less affluent. Marketersmust carefully monitor economic changes so they will be able to prosper with the trend, notsuffer from it . c. Natural Environment The natural environment involves natural resources that are needed as inputs by marketers or that are affected by marketing activities. During the past two decades environmental concernshave steadily grown. Some trend analysts labeled the specific areas of concern were: 1).Shortages of raw materials. Staples such as air, water, and wood products have been seriously damaged and non-renewablesuch as oil, coal, and various minerals have been seriously depleted during industrial expansion. 2).Increased pollution is a worldwide problem. Industrial damage to the environment is very serious. Far-sightedcompanies are becoming â€Å"environmentally friendly† and are producing environmentally safe andrecyclable or biodegradable goods. The public response to these companies is encouraging.However, lack of adequate funding, especially in third world countries, is a major barrier. 3).Government intervention in natural resource management has caused environmental concerns to be more practical andnecessary in business and industry. Leadership, not punishment, seems to be the best policy for long-term results. Instead of opposing regulation, marketers should help develop solutions to thematerial and energy problems facing the world. 4).Environmentally sustainable strategies. The so-called green movement has encouraged or even demanded that firms produce strategiesthat are not only environmentally friendly but are also environmentally proactive. Firms are beginning to recognize the link between a healthy economy and a healthy environment. d. Technological Environment The technological environment includes forces that create new technologies, creating new product and market opportunities. 1). Technology is perhaps the most dramatic force shaping our destiny 2). New technologies create new markets and opportunities. 3). The following trends are worth watching: a). Faster pace of technological change. Products are being technologically outdated at a rapid pace. b). There seems to be almost unlimited opportunities being developed daily. Consider theexpanding . fields of health care, the space shuttle, robotics, and biogenetic industries. c). The challenge is not only technical but also commercial–to make practical, affordableversions of . . products. d). Increased regulation. Marketers should be aware of the regulations concerning product safety,individual privacy, and other areas that affect technological changes. They must also be alert to . any.possible negative aspects of an innovation that might harm users or arouse opposition. e. Political Environment The political environment includes laws, government agencies, and pressure groups thatinfluence and . limit various organizations and individuals in a given society. Various forms of legislation regulate business. 1). Governments develop public policy to guide commerce–sets of laws and regulations limiting business for the good of society as a whole. 2). Almost every marketing activity is subject to a wide range of laws and regulations. Sometrends in the political environment include: 1). Increasing legislation to: a).Protect companies from each other. b).Protecting consumersfrom unfair business practices. c).Protecting interests of society against unrestrained business behavior. 2). Changing government agency enforcement. New laws and their enforcement will continue or increase. 3). Increased emphasis on ethics and socially responsible actions. Socially responsible firmsactively seek out ways to protect the long-run interests of their consumers and the environment. a). Enlightened companies encourage their managers to look beyond regulation and â€Å"do the rightthing.† b). Recent scandals have increased concern about ethics and social responsibility. c). The boom in e-commerce and Internet marketing has created a new set of social and ethicalissues. Concerns are Privacy, Security, Access by vulnerable or unauthorized groups. f. Cultural Environment The cultural environment is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society’s basicvalues, perceptions, preferences, and behaviors. Certain cultural characteristics can affectmarketing decision-making. Among the most dynamic cultural characteristics are: 1). Persistence of cultural values. People’s core beliefs and values have a high degree of persistence. Core beliefs and values are passed on from parents to children and are reinforced byschools, churches, business, and government. Secondary beliefs and values are more open tochange. 2). Shifts in secondary cultural values. Since secondary cultural values and beliefs are open tochange, marketers want to spot them and be able to capitalize on the change potential. Society’smajor cultural views are expressed in a).People’s views of themselves. People vary in their emphasis on serving themselves versusserving others. In the 1980s, personal ambition and materialism increased dramatically, withsignificant implications for marketing. The leisure industry was a chief beneficiary. b).People’s views of others. Observers have noted a shift from a â€Å"me-society† to a â€Å"we-society.† Consumers are spending more on products and services that will improve their livesrather than their image. c). People’s views of organizations. People are willing to work for large organizations butexpect them to become increasingly socially responsible. Many companies are linkingthemselves to worthwhile causes. Honesty in appeals is a must. d).People’s views of society. This orientation influences consumption patterns. â€Å"Buy American†versus buying abroad is an issue that will continue into the next decade. e).People’s view of nature. There is a growing trend toward people’s feeling of mastery over nature through technology and the belief that nature is bountiful. However, nature is finite. Loveof nature and sports associated with nature are expected to be significant trends in the nextseveral years. f).People’s views of the universe. Studies of the origin of man, religion, and thought-provokingad campaigns are on the rise. Currently, Americans are on a spiritual journey. This will probablytake the form of â€Å"spiritual individualism.